PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION (2)
Deep processing- This is focusing upon meaning.
Elaboration- Connecting new info with old, to gain meaning.
Generation- Things we produce are easier to remember than things we hear.
Context-Remembering the situation helps recover information
Personalization- making the information relevant to the individual
Memory Methods
Memorization (note the same as learning)
Serial Position Effect (regency and primacy) you will remember the beginning and end of list most readily
Part Learning - Break up the list to increase memorization
Distributed Practice- Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in at once (Massed Practice)
Mnemonics Aids
Loci Method - Familiar place, associate list with items in place (i.e. living room)
Peg-type - Standard list is a cue to the target list.
Acronym – SCUBA
Chain Mnemonics – EGBDF
Key word Method - Association of new word/ concept with well know word/concept that sounds similar.
THEORIES OF INTELLIGENCE
Psychometric Theories have sought to understand the structure of intelligence; the form, it categories, and its composition. Underlying psychometric intelligence theory is a psychological model according to which intelligence is a combination of abilities that can be measured by mental testing. These tests often include analogies, classification / identification, and series completion. Each test score is equally weighted according to the evidence of underlying ability in each category
British psychologist Charles E. Spearman published the first psychometric theory 1904. His theory noted that people who excelled on one mental ability test often did well on the others, and people who did poorly on one of them tended to do poorly with others. Using this concept, Spearman devised a technique of statistical analyzing that examined patterns of individual scores. This analysis helped him discover what he believed to be the two sources if these individual differences: the “general factor” which is our general intellectual ability, and a test-specific factor.
American psychologist L.L. Thurstone disregarded with Spearman’s theory and his isolation of the “general factor” of intelligence. Thurstone believed that the “general factor “resulted from Spearman’s method of analysis, and that if analysis were more thorough, seven factors would emerge. These seven factors were collectively called the “primary mental abilities” and included verbal comprehension, verbal comprehension, verbal fluency, numbers, spatial visualization, inductive reasoning, memory, memory and perceptual speed.
Most psychologists agree that a broader subdivision of abilities than Spearman’s classification is necessary, but only some agree with hierarchal subdivision. It quickly became apparent to many psychologists that were problems that could not be addressed by
psychometric theories. The number of abilities could not be positively identified, and the differences between them could not be clearly defined due to the limitations of testing and analysis. However, the most significant problem extended beyond the number of abilities: what happens in someone’s mind when they are using the ability in question? Psychometric theories had no means of addressing this issue, and cognitive theories began to fill this gap.
Cognitive Theories. During the era of psychometric theories, people’s test scores dominated the study of intelligence. In 1957, American psychologist Lee Cronbach criticized how some psychologists study individual differences and other study commonalities in human behavior, but the two methods never meet. Cronbach voiced the need for two methods to be united, which led to the development of cognitive theories of intelligence.
Without understanding the processes underlying intelligence, we cannot come to accurate conclusions when analyzing test scores or assessing someone’s performance. Cognitive analysis helps the interpretation of the test scores by determining to what degree the score reflects reasoning ability and the degree to which it is a result of not understanding the questions or vocabulary. Psychometric theories did not differentiate between these two factors, which have a significant effect on the determination of intelligence. Many people are excellent reasoners but have modest vocabularies, and vice versa.
Underlying the cognitive approach to intelligence is the assumption that intelligence is comprised of a set of mental representations of information, and a set of processes that operate the mental representations. It is assumed that a more intelligent person represents information better, and operates more quickly on these representations than does a less intelligent person.
Several different cognitive theories of intelligence have emerged over the years. One was introduced by Earl Hunt, Nancy Frost, and Clifford Lunneborg, who in 1973 showed one way on which psychometric and cognitive modeling could be combined. Instead of using conventional psychometric tests, they used tasks that allowed them to study the basis of cognition-perception, learning and memory. Individual differences in the tasks became apparent, which they related to differing patterns of performing and operating manual representations.
Several years later, Robert Stemberg suggested an alternative approach to studying cognitive process. He argued, based on evidence he had gathered, that there weak only a weak relationship between basic cognitive tasks and psychometric test scores because the tasks being used were too simple. Although simple task involve cognitive processes, they are peripheral rather than central.
Although opposing cognitive theories exist, they are all based on the serial processing of information, which means that cognitive processes are executed one after another in a series.
The assumption is that we process chunks of information one at a time, trying to combine the processes into an overall problem-solving strategy. Other psychologists have challenged this idea, arguing that cognitive processing is parallel, meaning that we process large amounts of information simultaneously. However, it has proved difficult to distinguish between serial and parallel models of information processing.
Despite evidence and support of cognitive intelligence theories, a major problem remains regarding the nature of intelligence. Cognitive theories do not take into account that the description of intelligence may differ from one cultural group to another. Even within mainstream cultures, it will know that conventional tests do not reliably predict performance. Therefore in addition to cognition, the context in which the cognition operates also needs to be accounted for.
EXCEPTIONAL DEVELOPMENT – A COGNITIVE APPROACH
Giftedness - For many years, psychometricians and psychologists, following the footsteps of Lewis Terman in 1916, equated giftedness with high IQ. This “legacy” survives to the present day, in that giftedness and high IQ continue to be equated in some conceptions of giftedness. Since that early time, however, other researchers (e.g., Cattell, Guilford, and Thurnstone) have argued that intellect cannot be expressed in such a unitary manner, and have suggested more multifaceted approaches to intelligence. Research conducted in the 1980s has provided data which support notions of multiple components to intelligence. This is particularly evident in the examination of “giftedness” by Stenberge and Davidson in their edited Conceptions of Giftedness. The many different conceptions of giftedness presented, although distinct, are interrelated in several ways. Most of the investigators define giftedness in terms of multiple qualities, not all of which are intellectual, IQ scores are often viewed as in adequate measures of giftedness. Motivation, high self-concept, and creativity are they key qualities in many of these broadened conceptions of giftedness.
Mental Retardation is a term for a pattern of persistently slow learning of basic motor and language skills (“milestones”) during child hood, and a significantly below-normal global intellectual capacity as an adult. One common criterion for diagnosis of mental retardation is tested intelligence quotient (IQ) of 70 or below and deficits in adaptive functioning.
Autism is a brain development disorder characterized by impairments in social interaction and communication, and restricted and repetitive behavior, all exhibited before the child is three years old. These characteristics distinguish autism form milder spectrum disorder (ASD). Autism affects many parts of the brain, how this occurs is poorly understood. Parents usually notice signs in the first year or two of their child’s life, Early intervention may help children gain self-care and social skills, although few of these interventions are supported by scientific studies. There is no cure, with severe autism, independent living is unlikely; with milder autism, there are some success stories for adults, and an autistic culture has developed, with some seeking a cure and others believing that autism is a condition rather than a disorder.
Asperger’s Syndrome - (also Asperger’s Syndrome, Asperger’s disorder, Asperger’s AS, or AD) is one of several autism spectrum disorders (ASD) characterized by difficulties in social interaction and by restricted and stereotyped interests and activities. AS is distinguished for other ASDs in having no general delay in language or cognitive development,
There is no single treatment for AS, and the effectiveness of particular interventions is supported by only limited data. Intervention is aimed at improving symptoms and function. The mainstay of treatment is behavioral therapy, focusing on specific deficits to address poor communication skills, obsessive or repetitive routines, and clumsiness. Most individuals with AS can learn to cope with their differences, but may continue to need moral support encouragement to maintain an independent life. Adults with AS have reached the highest levels of achievement in fields such as mathematics,
physics and computer science, Researchers and people with AS have contributed to a shift in attitudes away from the notion that AS is a difference rather than a disability.
Down syndrome or Trisomy 21 (usually Down’s syndrome in British English) is a specific disorder caused by the presence of all or part if an extra 21st chromosome. It is named after John Longdon Down, the British doctor who described it in 1866. The condition is characterized by a combination of major and minor differences in structure. Often Down syndrome is associated with some impairment of cognitive ability and physical growth as well as facial appearance. Down syndrome can be identifies during pregnancy or at birth. Individuals with Down syndrome can have a lower than average cognitive ability, often ranging from mild to moderate learning disabilities. Developmental disabilities often manifests as tendency toward concrete thinking or naiveté. A small number have severe to profound mental disability. The incidence of Down syndrome is estimated at 1 per 800 to 1, 00 births.
THEORIES OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT | ERIKSON STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT
Erik Homburger Erikson (1902-1994) was a German developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on social development of human beings, and for coping the phrase identity crisis.
Each of Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are marked by a conflict, for which successful resolution will result in a favorable outcome, for example, trust vs. mistrust, and by an important event that is conflict resolves itself around, for example, meaning of one’s life.
Favorable outcomes of each stage are sometimes known as “virtues”, a term used, in the context of Erikson work, as it is applied to medicines, meaning” potencies “For example, the virtue that would emerge from successful resolution. Oddly, and certainly counter- intrusively, Erikson’s research reveals with breath-taking clarity how each individual must learn how to hold both extremes of each specific life-stage challenge in tension with one another not rejecting one end of the tension or the other.
Only when both extremes in a life-stage challenge are understood and accepted as both required and useful, can the optimal virtue for that stage surface. Thus, “trust” and “mistrust” must both the understood and accepted, in order for realistic “hope” to emerge as a viable solution at the first stage. Similarly, “integrity” and “despair” must both be understood and embraced, in order for actionable wisdom to emerge as a viable solution at the last stage.
The Erikson life stage virtues in order of the stages in which they may be acquired are:
Trust vs. mistrust. Is the world a safe place or is it full of unpredictable events and accidents waiting to happen? Erikson’s first psychosocial crisis occurs during the first year or so of life (like Freud’s oral stage of psychosexual development). The crisis is one of trust vs. mistrust.
During this stage the infant is uncertain about the world in which they live. To resolve these feelings of uncertainty the infant looks towards their primary caregiver for stability and consistency of care.
If the care the infant receives is consistent, predictable and reliable, they will develop a sense of trust which will carry with them to other relationships, and they will be able to feel secure even when threatened.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of hope. By developing a sense of trust, the infant can have hope that as new crises arise, there is a real possibility that other people will be there are a source of support. Failing to acquire the virtue of hope will lead to the development of fear.
For example, if the care has been harsh or inconsistent, unpredictable and unreliable, then the infant will develop a sense of mistrust and will not have confidence in the world around them or in their abilities to influence events.
This infant will carry the basic sense of mistrust with them to other relationships. It may result in anxiety, heightened insecurities, and an over feeling of mistrust in the world around them.
Consistent with Erikson’s views on the importance of trust, research by Bowlby and Ainsworth has outlined how the quality of the early experience of attachment can affect relationships with others in later life.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt. The child is developing physically and becoming more mobile. Between the ages of 18 months and three, children begin to assert their independence, by walking away from their mother, picking which toy to play with, and making choices about what they like to wear, to eat, etc.
The child is discovering that he or she has many skills and abilities, such as putting on clothes and shoes, playing with toys, etc. Such skills illustrate the child’s growing sense of independence and autonomy. Erikson states it is critical that parents allow their children to explore the limits of their abilities within an encouraging environment which is tolerant of failure.
For example, rather than put on a child’s clothes a supportive parent should have the patience to allow the child to try until they succeed or ask for assistance. So, the parents need to encourage the child to becoming more independent whilst at the same time protecting the child so that constant failure is avoided. A delicate balance is required from the parent. They must try not to do everything for the child but if the child fails at a particular task they must not criticize the child for failures and accidents (particularly when toilet training). The aim has to be “self-control without a loss of self- esteem” (Gross, 1992). Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of will.
If children in this stage are encouraged and supported in their increased independence, they become more confident and secure in their own ability to survive in the world. If children are criticized, overly controlled, or not given the opportunity to assert themselves, they begin to feel inadequate in their ability to survive, and may then become overly dependent upon others, lack self-esteem, and feel a sense of shame or doubt in their own abilities.
Initiative vs. Guilt. Around age three and continuing to age five, children assert themselves more frequently. These are particularly lively, rapid-developing years in a child’s life. According to Bee
(1992) it is a “time of vigor of action and of behaviors that the parents may see as aggressive”. During this period the primary feature involves the child regularly interacting with other children at school. Central to this stage is play, as it provides children with the opportunity to explore their interpersonal skills through initiating activities.
Children begin to plan activities, make up games, and initiate activities with others. If given this opportunity, children develop a sense of initiative, and feel secure in their ability to lead others and make decisions. Conversely, if this tendency is squelched, either through criticism or control, children develop a sense of guilt. They may feel like a nuisance to others and will therefore remain followers, lacking in self-initiative.
The child takes initiatives which the parents will often try to stop in order to protect the child. The child will often overstep the mark in his forcefulness and the danger is that the parents will tend to punish the child and restrict his initiatives too much. It is at this stage that the child will begin to ask many questions as his thirst for knowledge grows. If the parents treat the child’s questions as trivial, a nuisance or embarrassing or other aspects of their behavior as threatening then the child may have feelings of guilt for “being a nuisance”.
Too much guilt can make the child slow to interact with others and may inhibit their creativity. Some guilt is, of course, necessary, otherwise the child would not know how to exercise self-control or have a conscience. A healthy balance between initiative and guilt is important. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of purpose.
Industry (competence) vs. Inferiority. Industry versus inferiority is the fourth stage of Erik
Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. The stage occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Children are at the stage where they will be learning to read and write, to do sums, to do things on their own. Teachers begin to take an important role in the child’s life as they teach the child specific skills.
It is at this stage that the child’s peer group will gain greater significance and will become a major source of the child’s self-esteem. The child now feels the need to win approval by demonstrating specific competencies that are valued by society, and begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments. If children are encouraged and reinforced for their initiative, they begin to feel industrious and feel confident in their ability to achieve goals. If this initiative is not encouraged, if it is restricted by parents or teacher, then the child begins to feel inferior, doubting his own abilities and therefore may not reach his or her potential.
If the child cannot develop the specific skill they feel society is demanding (e.g. being athletic) then they may develop a sense of inferiority. Some failure may be necessary so that the child can develop some modesty. Yet again, a balance between competence and modesty is necessary. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of competence.
Identity vs. Role Confusion. The fifth stage is identity vs. role confusion, and it occurs during adolescence, from about 12-18 years. During this stage adolescents search for a sense of self and personal identity, through an intense exploration of personal values, beliefs and goals.
The adolescent mind is essentially a mind or moratorium, a psychosocial stage between childhood and adulthood, and between the morality learned by the child, and the ethics to be developed by the adult (Erikson p. 245)
During adolescence the transition from childhood to adulthood is most important. Children are becoming more independent, and begin to look at the future in terms of career, relationships, families, housing, etc. The individual wants to belong to a society and fit in. This is a major stage in development where the child has to learn the roles he will occupy as an adult. It is during this stage that the adolescent will re-examine his identity and try to find out exactly who he or she is. Erikson suggests that two identities are involved: the sexual and the occupational.
According to Bee (1992), what should happen at the end of this stage is “a reintegrated sense of self, of what one wants to do or be, and of one’s appropriate sex role”. During this stage the body image
of the adolescent changes. Erikson claims that the adolescent may feel uncomfortable about their body for a while until they can adapt and “grow into” the changes. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of fidelity. Fidelity involves being able to commit one’s self to others on the basis of accepting others, even when there may be ideological differences. During this period, they explore possibilities and begin to form their own identity based upon the outcome of their explorations.
Failure to establish a sense of identity within society (“I don’t know what I want to be when I grow up”) can lead to role confusion. Role confusion involves the individual not being sure about themselves or their place in society.
In response to role confusion or identity crisis an adolescent may begin to experiment with different lifestyles (e.g. work, education or political activities). Also pressuring someone into an identity can result in rebellion in the form of establishing a negative identity, and in addition to this feeling of unhappiness.
Intimacy vs. Isolation. Occurring in young adulthood (ages 18 to 40 yrs), we begin to share ourselves more intimately with others. We explore relationships leading toward longer term commitments with someone other than a family member.
Successful completion of this stage can lead to comfortable relationships and a sense of commitment, safety, and care within a relationship. Avoiding intimacy, fearing commitment and relationships can lead to isolation, loneliness, and sometimes depression. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of love.
Generativity vs. Stagnation. During middle adulthood (ages 40 to 65 yrs), we establish our careers, settle down within a relationship, begin our own families and develop a sense of being a part of the bigger picture.
We give back to society through raising our children, being productive at work, and becoming involved in community activities and organizations. By failing to achieve these objectives, we become stagnant and feel unproductive. Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of care.
Ego Integrity vs. Despair. As we grow older (65+ yrs) and become senior citizens, we tend to slow down our productivity, and explore life as a retired person. It is during this time that we contemplate our accomplishments and are able to develop integrity if we see ourselves as leading a successful life. Erik Erikson believed if we see our lives as unproductive, feel guilt about our past, or feel that we did not accomplish our life goals, we become dissatisfied with life and develop despair, often leading to depression and hopelessness.
Success in this stage will lead to the virtue of wisdom. Wisdom enables a person to look back on their life with a sense of closure and completeness, and also accept death without fear.
SOCIAL COGNITIVE THEORY
Social Cognitive Theory - Utilized both in Psychology and Communications posits that portions of an individual’s knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences.
An important point in the social cognitive theory is that the learner’s behavior is guided by cognitive processes rather than formed or shaped by reinforced practice. Four component parts are responsible for the learning and performance acquisition. These are:
Attentional processes
Observer characteristics are perceptual or cognitive capacities, arousal level and past performance.
Event characteristics are relevance, affective valence, complexity, functional value, model’s characteristics and Intrinsic rewards.
Retention processes
Observer characteristics are cognitive skills
Event characteristics are cognitive organization and rehearsal
Motor reproduction process
Observer characteristics are physical capabilities and sub skill mastery
Event characteristics are selection and organization of responses with feedback
Motivational processes
Observer characteristics are incentive preference, social bias and internal standards
Event characteristics are external, self and vivacious reinforcement
Albert Bandura (Social Cognitive Theory)
Bandura bases his theory on the acquisition of complex behaviors on a triangular diagram illustrating the interactive effect of various factors. These three factors are behavior (B), the environment (E), and the internal events that influence perceptions and actions. (P). the relationship between these three factors is known as reciprocal determinism.
Bandura identified three types of reinforces of behavior. These were direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement and self-reinforcement. Direct reinforcement would be directly experienced by the learner. Vicarious reinforcement would be observed to be consequences of the behavior of the model. Self-reinforcement would be feelings of satisfaction or displeasure for behavior gauged by personal performance standards.
Bandura describes three types of modeling stimuli, which are live models, symbolic models, and verbal descriptions or instructions. Of these three, in American society, the greatest range of exposure is in the form of symbolic models through mass media.
In Bandura’s later work he introduces two other aspects to his Social Learning Theory. These are his work on the self-regulatory system and self-efficacy. In the area of self-regulatory system/ self-evaluative behaviors he said that this system us based upon cognitive sub processes that: PERCEIVE, EVALUATE and REGULATE BEHAVIOR
EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional Intelligence (Goleman) - (EI), often measured as an Emotional Intelligence Quotient (EQ), describes an ability, capacity, or skill to perceive, assess, and manage the emotions of one’s self, of others, and of groups. As relatively new area of psychological research, the definition of EI is constantly changing.
The El model introduced by Daniel Goleman focuses in EL as wide array of competencies and skills that drive managerial performance, measured by multi-rater assessment and self-assessment (Bradberry and Greaves, 2005). In working with Emotional Intelligence (1998) Goleman explored the function of EI on the job, and claimed EI to be the largest single predictor of success in the workplace, with more recent confirmation of these findings on a worldwide sample seen in Bradberry and Greaves, “The Emotional Intelligence Quick Book” (200%)
Goleman’s model outlines four main EI constructs:
Self-awareness - the ability to read one’s emotions and recognize their impact while using gut feelings to guide decisions.
Self - management - involves controlling one’s emotions and impulses and adapting to changing circumstances.
Social awareness - the ability to sense, understand, and react to other’s emotions while comprehending social networks.
Relationships management - the ability to inspire, influence, and develop others while managing conflict.
Goleman includes a set of emotional competencies within each construct of EI. Emotional competencies are not innate talents, but rather learned capabilities that must be worked on and developed to achieve outstanding performance. Goleman believes that individuals are born with a general emotional intelligence that determines their potential for learning emotional competencies.
MORAL DEVELOPMENT THEORY
Kohlberg’s stages of moral development are places of moral adequacy conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to explain the development of moral reasoning. Created while studying psychology at the University of Chicago, the theory was inspired by the work if Jean Piaget and a fascination with children’s reactions to moral dilemmas. He wrote his doctoral dissertation at the university in 1958, outlining what are now known as his stages of moral development.
Levels and Stages of Moral Development: Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality – The first level of morality, pre-conventional morality, can be further divided into two stages: obedience and punishment, and individualism and exchange.
Stage 1: Punishment- Obedience Orientation
Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that the person refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we follow the law because we do not want to go to jail.
Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation
In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it satisfies the individual needs of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person because he needs that money to buy food for his hungry children. In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the doer.
Level 2: Conventional Morality - The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of moral development. Conventional morality includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action.
Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation
In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations before him. This is also known as the “interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch to a street peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.
Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a person’s duty. The society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the money offered to him under the table and arrests the offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and order.
Level 3: Post-conventional Morality
The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned with the universal principles that relation to the action done.
Stage 5 : Social Contract Orientation
In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before coming up with the decision on the morality of the action.
Stage 6 : Universal Ethical Principles Orientation
The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers universally accepted ethical principles. The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes attached to his own principles of justice.
Carol Gilligan - her fame rests primarily on in a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development (1982) in which she criticized Kohlberg’s research on the moral development of used children. Which at the time showed that girls on average reached a lower level of moral development than boys did. Giligan pointed out that the participants in Kohlberg’s basic study were largely male, and that the scoring method Kohlberg used tended to a favor a principled way of reasoning that was more common to boys, over a moral argumentation concentrating on relations, which would be more amenable to girls. Kohlberg saw reason to revise his scoring method as a result of Gilligan’s critique, after which boys and girls scored evenly.
Her work formed the basis for what has become known as the ethics of care, a theory of ethics that contrasts ethics of care to so-called ethics of justice.
The following are some major factors affecting the social and emotional development of children and adolescents:
Media - the main means of mass communication (broadcasting, publishing, and the Internet), regarded collectively.
Parenting - is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the intricacies of raising a child aside from the biological relationship
Role Models - is a person whose behavior, example, or success is or can be emulated by others, especially by younger people.
Peer groups - is a social group that consists of individuals of the same social status who share similar interests and are close in age.
EXCEPTIONAL AREA DEVELOPMENT IN THE AREA OF SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Leadership - the ability of an individual to influence, motivate and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members.
Juvenile Delinquency- Juvenile delinquency may refer to either violent or non-violent crime committed by persons who are (usually) under the age of eighteen and are still considered to be a minor. There is much debate about whether or not such a child should be held criminally responsible for his or her own actions. There are many different inside influences that are believed to affect the way a child acts both negatively and positively, some of which are as follows:
Abandonment - is a subjective emotional state in which people feel undesired, left behind, insecure, or discarded. People experiencing emotional abandonment may feel at loss, cut off from a crucial source of sustenance that has been withdrawn, either suddenly, or through a process of erosion.
Social institutions - consists of a group of people who have come together for a common purpose. These institutions are a part of the social order of society and they govern behavior and expectations of individuals.
Peer pressure is the direct influence on people by peers, or the effect on an individual who gets encouraged to follow their peers by changing their attitudes, values or behaviors to conform to those of the influencing group or individual
Affective and Mode Disorders - The mood or affective disorders are mental disorders that primarily affect mood and interfere with the activities of daily living. Usually it includes major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (also called Manic Depressive Psychosis. They are set of psychiatric disorders, also called mood disorders. The main types of affective disorders are depression, bipolar disorder, and anxiety disorder. Symptoms vary by individual and can range from mild to severe.
What is an affective personality disorder? Affective disorders may include manic (elevated, expansive, or irritable mood with hyperactivity, pressured speech, and inflated self-esteem) or depressive (dejected mood with disinterest in life, sleep disturbance, agitation, and feelings of worthlessness or guilt) episodes, and often combinations of the two.
What are some examples of mood disorders? Some examples of mood disorders include: Major depressive disorder — prolonged and persistent periods of extreme sadness. Bipolar disorder — also called manic depression or bipolar affective disorder, depression that includes alternating times of depression and mania.
What are the different types of mood disorders?
Major depression. Having less interest in usual activities, feeling sad or hopeless, and other symptoms for at least 2 weeks may indicate depression.
Dysthymia
Bipolar disorder
Mood disorder related to another health condition
Substance-induced mood disorder.
What medications treat mood disorders? Antipsychotic medications used for bipolar disorder include:
Olanzapine (Zyprexa)
Quetiapine (Seroquel)
Risperidone (Risperdal)
Ariprazole (Abilify)
Ziprasidone (Geodon)
Clozapine (Clozaril)
What is meant by social institutions? Each piece serves a different purpose to the overall operation of the bike. In sociology, social institutions, such as economy and government, are the 'bike parts' and the overall society is the 'bicycle.' Social institutions are established sets of norms and subsystems that support each society's survival.
What are the five major social institutions? Five major institutions in rural sociology are political, educational, economic, family and religion.
Political: Government as political institution, administers the regulatory functions of Law and order, and maintains security in society.
What is the function of social institutions? Social institutions are a system of behavioral and relationship patterns that are densely interwoven and enduring, and function across an entire society. They order and structure the behavior of individuals by means of their normative character.
Which one is the most important social institution? Family is very important in Germany both from social and legal viewpoints. A family creates a stable and often unbreakable relationship. For me family is the most important social institution in my life.
FACILITATING HUMAN LEARNING
Definition of learning - is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values and wisdom. It is the goal of education, and the product of experience. It is therefore a relatively permanent change in behavior.
Other Definitions:
A process inferred from relatively stable changes in behavior that result through practice of interaction with and adaptation to the environment (Goodwin and Klausmeier)
The development of new associations as a result of experience (Good and Grophy).
The modification of an organism’s behavior as a result of maturation and environmental experience.
THEORIES OF LEARNING
Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism | Associationism Theory:
Human activity is based on association between stimulus and response.
Law of effect - The third law is the ‘Law of Effect’, according to which the trial or steps leading to satisfaction stamps in the bond or connection. Satisfying states lead to consolidation and strengthening of the connection, whereas dis-satisfaction, annoyance or pain lead to the weakening or stamping out of the connection. In fact, the ‘law of effect’ signifies that if the response satisfy the subject, they are learnt and selected, while those
which are not satisfying are eliminated. Teaching, therefore, must be pleasing. The educator must obey the tastes and interests of his pupils. In other words, greater the satisfaction stronger will be the motive to learn. Thus, intensity is an important condition of ‘law of effect’.
Law of exercise - The second law of learning is the ‘Law of Exercise’, which means that drill or practice helps in increasing efficiency and durability of learning and according to Throndike’s S-R Bond Theory, the connections are strengthened with trail or practice and the connections are weakened when trial or practice is discontinued. The ‘law of exercise’, therefore, is also understood as the ‘law of use and disuse’ in which case connections or bonds made in the brain cortex are weakened or loosened. Many examples of this case are found in case of human learning. Learning to drive a motor-car, typewriting, singing or memorizing a poem or a mathematical table, and music etc. need exercise and repetition of various movements and actions many times.
Law of readiness - First primary law of learning, according to him, is the ‘Law of Readiness’ or the ‘Law of Action Tendency’, which means that learning takes place when an action tendency is aroused through preparatory adjustment, set or attitude. Readiness means a preparation of action. If one is not prepared to learn, learning cannot be automatically instilled in him, for example, unless the typist, in order to learn typing prepares himself to start, he would not make much progress in a lethargic & unprepared manner.
Classical conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): It is based on ADHESIVE principle which means that a response is attached to a stimulus through the stimulus occurring just prior to the response so that the recurrence of the stimulus will evoke or cause the response. (Ex. Dog’s salivation experiment)
Operant Conditioning (BF Skinner): Organism has to do something in order to get reward that is, it must operate on its environment.
Reinforcement: is any behavioral consequence that strengthens behavior. It increases the likelihood of the recurrent of a particular type of response.
Types of reinforcement:
Positive Reinforcement: These reinforces increase frequency.
Negative Reinforcement: Strengthens behavior by their removal.
Primary Reinforcement: food, water, sleep
Secondary Reinforcement: money, grades, starts, tokens etc.
Social Learning Theory (Albert Bandura) – plus emphasis on OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING.
Wolfgang Kohler’s Insight Theory - Gaining insight is a gradual processes of exploring analyzing and restructuring perceptions until a solution is arrived at.
Gestalt Theoru (Kohlerm Wertheimer and Koffka) - The primary focus of this theory is on PERCEPTION and how people assign meanings to visual stimuli, “The whole is more than the sum of all its parts”
Kurt Lewin’s Topological and Vector Theory (Field Theory) - the behavior of an individual at a given moment is the result of existing forces operating simultaneously in his life space. (Internal and External forces).
Jerome Bruner’s Theory - Also known as Instrumental Conceptualism. Learning involves 3 simultaneously processes: acquisition transformation and evaluation.
Information processing Theory - The theory describes the psychological events in terms of transformations of information form input to output. It stresses the value of perception, attention and memory in the learning process.
Types of Learning:
Cognitive Learning - is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts. This explains why the brain is the most incredible network of information processing and interpretation in the body as we learn things.
Affective Learning - Involves assimilation of values, emotional reactions and acquisition of attitudes. These domains are cognitive (thinking), affective (emotion/feeling), and psychomotor (physical/kinesthetic). Each domain on this page has a taxonomy associated with it. Taxonomy is simply a word for a classification. All of the taxonomies below are arranged so that they proceed from the simplest to more complex levels.
Psychomotor Learning - understanding the external world through the senses and muscles. The psychomotor domain deals with manual or physical skills. It is the "doing" domain.
Analogical Process and Transfer of Learning - the Theory of Transfer of Learning was introduced by Thorndike and Woodworth (1901). They explored how individuals would transfer learning in one context to another context that shared similar characteristics. Their theory implied that transfer of learning depends on the learning task and the transfer task being identical, also known as “identical elements. There is a close relationships between transfer of learning and problem solving a problem in a new situation.
Metacognition - refers to thinking about cognition (memory, perception, calculation, association, etc.) itself or to think/reason about one’s own thinking. It refers to “thinking about thinking” and was
introduced as a concept in by John Flavell, who is typically seen as a founding scholar of the field. Flavell said that metacognition is the knowledge you have of your own cognitive processes (your thinking).Flavell (1979). It is your ability to control your thinking processes through various strategies, such as organizing, monitoring, and adapting. Additionally, it is your ability to reflect upon the tasks or processes you undertake and to select and utilize the appropriate strategies necessary in your intercultural interactions.
Metacognition involves two types of knowledge:
explicit | conscious | factual knowledge
implicit | unconsciousness knowledge.
The efforts of metacognition are aimed at developing learner autonomy, independence and self-regulated learners.
Motivational Factors in Learning Reward and Reinforcement - a reward is that which follows an occurrence of a specific behavior with the intention of acknowledging the behavior in a positive way. A reward often has the intent of
encouraging the behavior to happen again.
There are two kinds of rewards, extrinsic and intrinsic rewards are external to, or outside of, the individual; for example, praise or money. Intrinsic rewards are internal to or within, the individual; for example, satisfaction or accomplishment.
Some authors distinguish between two forms of intrinsic motivation: on based on enjoyment, the other on obligation. In this context, obligation refers to motivation bases on what an individual thinks ought to be done. For, instance, a feeling of responsibility for a mission may lead to helping others beyond what is easily observable, rewarded, or fun.
A reinforce is different from reward, in that reinforcement is intended to create a measured increase in the rate of a desirable behavior following the addition of something to the environment.
Intrinsic motivation is evident when people engage in an activity for its own sake, without some obvious external incentive present. A hobby is a typical example. Intrinsic motivation has been intensely studied by educational psychologists since the 1970s, and numerous studies have found it to be associated with high educational achievement and enjoyment by the students.
There is currently no “grand unified theory” to explain the origin or elements of intrinsic motivation. Most explanations combine elements of Bernard Weiner’s attribution theory, Bandura’s work on self- efficacy and other studies relating to locus of control and goal orientation. Thus it is thought that students are more like to experience intrinsic motivation if they:
Attribute their educational results to internal factors that they can control (e.g. the amount of effort they put in, not fixed ability).
Believe they can be effective agents in reaching desired goals (e.g. the results are not determined by dumb luck).
Are motivated towards deep mastery of a topic, instead of just rote-learning performance to get good grades.
In knowledge-sharing communities and organizations, people often cite altruistic reasons for their participation, including contributing to a common good, a moral obligation to the group, mentorship
or giving back”. This model if intrinsic motivation has emerged from three decades of research by hundreds of educationalists and still evolving.
In work environments, money is typically viewed as an important goal (having food, clothes etc.) may well be more powerful than the direct motivation provided by an enjoyable workplace.
Learning styles vs. learning strategies.
Issues regarding learning style are somewhat related, i.e. students that willing and able to think in more abstract terms and/or to critically examine what they do may show better performance.
A learning style refers to the relationship between individuals and their ways of learning whereas learning strategies refer to attitudes and behavior that is oriented towards goals. As an example, one could compare/oppose.
THEORIES OF SITUATED LEARNING
Situated learning has antecedents in the work of Gibson (theory of affordances) and Vygotsky (social learning). In addition, the theory of Schoenfield on mathematical problem solving embodies some of the critical elements of situated learning framework. Situated learning is a general theory of knowledge acquisition. It has been applied in the context of technology-based learning activities for schools that focus in problem-solving skills.
Principles of Situated Learning:
Knowledge needs to be presented in an authentic context, i.e., setting and applications that would normally involve that knowledge
Learning requires social interaction and collaboration.
Multiple Intelligences - the theory of multiple intelligence was developed in 1983 by Dr. Howard Gardner, professor of education at Harvard University. It suggests that the traditional notion of intelligences to account for a broader range of human potential in children and adults.
The theory of multiple intelligences differentiates intelligence into specific 'modalities', rather than seeing intelligence as dominated by a single general ability. Howard Gardner proposed this model in his 1983 book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. According to the theory, an intelligence must fulfill eight criteria:
potential for brain isolation by brain damage,
place in evolutionary history,
presence of core operations,
susceptibility to encoding (symbolic expression),
a distinct developmental progression,
the existence of savants, prodigies and other exceptional people,
support from experimental psychology, and
Support from psychometric findings.
Gardner proposed eight abilities that he held to meet these criteria: Musical-rhythmic and harmonic: This area has to do with sensitivity to sounds, rhythms, tones, and music. People with a high musical intelligence normally have good pitch and may even have absolute
pitch, and are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music. They have sensitivity to
rhythm, pitch, meter, tone, melody or timbre.
Visual-spatial: This area deals with spatial judgment and the ability to visualize with the mind's eye. Spatial ability is one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model of intelligence.
Verbal-linguistic: People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They are typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with dates. Verbal ability is one of the most g-loaded abilities. This type of intelligence is measured with the Verbal IQ in WAIS-IV.
Logical-mathematical: This area has to do with logic, abstractions, reasoning, numbers and critical thinking. This also has to do with having the capacity to understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal system. Logical reasoning is closely linked to fluid intelligence and to general intelligence (g factor).
Bodily-kinesthetic - The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one's bodily motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully.[8] Gardner elaborates to say that this also includes a sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train responses.
People who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should be generally good at physical activities such as sports, dance, acting, and making things.
Gardner believes that careers that suit those with high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
include: athletes, dancers, musicians, actors, builders, police officers, and soldiers. Although these careers can be duplicated through virtual simulation, they will not produce the actual physical learning that is needed in this intelligence.
Interpersonal: In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their sensitivity to others' moods, feelings, temperaments, motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as part of a group. According to Gardner in How Are Kids Smart: Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom, "Inter- and Intra- personal intelligence is often misunderstood with being extroverted or liking other people..."[12] Those with high interpersonal intelligence communicate effectively and empathize easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers.
They often enjoy discussion and debate." Gardner has equated this with emotional intelligence of Goleman.
Gardner believes that careers that suit those with high interpersonal intelligence include sales persons, politicians, managers, teachers, lecturers, counselors and social workers.
Intrapersonal: This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having a deep understanding of the self; what one's strengths or weaknesses are, what makes one unique, being able to predict one's own reactions or emotions.
Naturalistic: Not part of Gardner's original seven, naturalistic intelligence was proposed by him in 1995. "If I were to rewrite Frames of Mind today, I would probably add an eighth intelligence - the intelligence of the naturalist. It seems to me that the individual who is readily able to recognize flora and fauna, to make other consequential distinctions in the natural world, and to use this ability productively (in hunting, in farming, in biological science) is exercising an important intelligence and one that is not adequately encompassed in the current list. This area has to do with nurturing and relating information to one's natural surroundings. Examples include classifying natural forms such as animal and plant species and rocks and mountain types. This ability was clearly of value in our evolutionary past as hunters, gatherers, and farmers; it continues to be central in such roles
This sort of ecological receptiveness is deeply rooted in a "sensitive, ethical,
and holistic understanding" of the world and its complexities – including the role of humanity within the greater ecosphere.
Existential: Gardner did not want to commit to a spiritual intelligence, but suggested that an "existential" intelligence may be a useful construct, also proposed after the original 7 in his 1999 book. The hypothesis of an existential intelligence has been further explored by educational researchers.
Additional intelligences: On January 13, 2016, Gardner mentioned in an interview with BigThink that he is considering adding the teaching-pedagogical intelligence "which allows us to be able to teach successfully to other people". In the same interview, he explicitly refused some other suggested intelligences like humor, cooking and sexual intelligence.
Characterizing Students with Special Learning Needs An exceptional child is one that is different in some way from “normal” to “average” child. The term “exceptional child” includes those with special problems related to physical disabilities, sensory
impairments, emotional disturbances, learning disabilities and mental retardation. Most exceptional
children require a lot of understanding and patience as well as special education and related services if they are to reach their full potential development.
SOCIOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF EDUCATION
Sociologist offer different theoretical perspective that are anchored on the concept that school is an open system to explain the relationship between the school and the society. The diverse sociological explanations enable educators to understand how the school, as a social institution of society, interacts with social environment as they perform their important role in their unique way either as agents of cultural and social transmission or as agents of social transformation.
The Nature of Education Sociology provides educators as special perspective in studying the school and society. Schools, by their nature are social organizations. Because of the nature of education, the study of school systems
becomes the concern of sociologists. Sociologist study the social issues and concerns in education
which impact on socialization.
The Role of Schools
Dr. Adelaida Bago, in her book Social Dimensions in the Philippine Education, stresses there are two possible purpose or roles of schools:
There are those who believe that one role of the school is to educate citizens to fit into society
There are those who believe that the role of the school is to educate citizens to change the society
The Specific purposes of the school are the following:
Cognitive Purposes- teaching the basic cognitive skills such as reading, writing and speaking.
Political Purposes- inculcation of patriotism or loyalty to the existing political order.
Social Purposes- concerns with the socialization of citizens into their various roles in society.
Economic Purposes- involves training and preparation of citizens for the world of work.
School as Open System School are open systems that draw their inputs and send back their outputs to the environment. An open system, like a living organism, has a homeostatic nature. Homeostasis is the property of open
system to regulate its internal environment to maintain stable constant condition. This is done
through internal regulation mechanisms of inter-related and interaction parts that counteract any departure from the normal or usual.
THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF EDUCATION
To provide logical explanations for why things happen the way they do in group situations, sociologists make use of theoretical perspective. These theories also become the basis for analyzing curriculum, instruction and structure in the school organization. The functionalist and Conflict Theories focus macro-level sociological analysis, while the interaction theory focuses on the micro level analysis.
The Functionalist Theory - (other known as equilibrium theory). The key terms in of society. Social equilibrium is achieved through the process of socialization of members into the basic values norms of particular group so that consensus is reached. The different parts or members of the society are interdependent grouped and organized to form a system.
Talcot Parsons - conceptualized society as a collection of systems within systems (McLeland, 2000)
Emile Durkheim - believed that education plays a significant roles in creating, moral unity, which is an imperative in social cohesion and harmony, Durkheim defined education and the concerns of sociology as follows: “ Education is the influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet ready for social life, its object is to arouse and to develop in the child a certain number of physical, intellectual and moral states which are demanded of him by both the political society as a whole and special milieu for which he is specifically destined..
Conflict Theory - assumes a tension in society and its part due to competing interest of individuals and groups. Adherents of the theory argue that what holds society together is economic, political, cultural, military power and note shared values alone. The social order is based on the stability of dominant groups to impose their will on others who are powerless. The Conflict theory is based on four interlocking concepts: competition, structural inequality, revolution and war.
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