Professional education is an approach to provide specialized training in a professional school. It aims to acquire content knowledge for all participants in learning and applying techniques in teaching. It also helps professionals to gain competencies necessary for proper practices and behavioral management. Professional Education deepens all professionals to incorporate their knowledge and values in professional discipline; understanding its core concept, principles, guidelines and techniques. It enables professional to attain a level of competence needed for responsible entry dedicated to professional practice; and the acceptance for the continued development of competence.

It is designed to produce a very competitive and responsible professionals ensuring their continuing competence in the profession by helping them recognize and understand the significance of advancing professional knowledge and improving standards of practice. It involves the translation of learning to practice and is intended to prevent occupations and professionals from becoming obsolete.

CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT

Childhood defines as the time for a boy or girl from birth until he or she is an adult. It is more circumscribed period of time from infancy to the onset of puberty. The Convention of the Rights of the Child defines a child as “every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier”.

Adolescence - According to Stuart Judge, a noted educator and psychologist, adolescence is the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Although sometimes described as beginning in parallel with fertility or puberty and ending with maturity and independence, adolescence has a very variable and imprecise duration

The onset of adolescence cannot be pointed in physiological term, although it is influenced by the same sex hormones and refers to the same general period as physical sexual development. It represents a complex and sometimes disturbing psychological transition, accompanying the requirement for the accepted social behavior of the particular adult and culture.

PHYSICAL AND MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Infants need to learn how to move and to use their bodies to perform various tasks, a process better known as motor development. Initially, babies’ movements are simply the uncontrolled, reflexive movements they are born with, over time, they learn to move their body parts voluntarily to perform both gross (large) and fine (small) motor skills. In general, babies begin developing motor skills form head to tail (cephalocaudal), the center of the body outward (proximodistal). They learn to control their head and neck before they learn to maneuver their arms; they learn to maneuver their arms before they learn to manipulate their fingers. Babies learn to move their torso before the learn how to move their arms and legs.
The sucking reflex allows babies to drink milk and nourish themselves in the days of life.
Another permanent and life-supporting reflex is heard turning in the first days of life.
Another permanent life-supporting reflex is head turning. This reflex allows a baby to turn his head if something (a blanket, pillow, or stuffed animal) is blocking his airflow.
Another reflex that also babies survive is the rooting reflex. When babies root, they may nuzzle their face and mouth into the caregiver’s chest or shoulder.
The rest of the flexes have less survival value but are still notable. For the first 3 to 4 months, babies have an amazing grasping ability and reflex. They will grasp anything place in their palm and hold it with amazing strength for their size. Some infants in the first weeks of life can support their entire body weight through that grasp.
While this reflex may not have any survival function in modern times, it does help babies bond with caregivers and family in the first weeks of life. Similarly, for the first two months, babies will ‘step” with their legs if they are held vertically with their feet touching a surface. Even though this reflex disappears months before babies begin walking purposely, experts believes stepping helps infants learn how their legs works can be used.
The Moro response is another reflex that is present during the first 6 months of life, but doesn’t seem to have a purpose in modern life. A baby with arch her back, flail out, and then curl up if she feels as although she is being dropped.
The final reflex is Tonic Neck. During the first 4 months, when babies lie awake on their backs with their heads facing to one side, they will extend the arm on the side of their body that they’re facing and reflex the other arm at an angle, in a position that resembles a fencing pose. This reflex may help prepare them for voluntary reaching later in their environment.
Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop “toddling”, or using the awkward, wide- legged robot-like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop a smoother gait, they also develop the ability to run, and hop. Children of this age can participate in throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can also push themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adult place one foot on each step in sequence); However, young children may still need some “back up” assistant to prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this age will also be stumped when it’s time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. The 3 to 4 years old can jump and hop higher as higher as their leg muscles grow stronger and many can even hop on one foot for shorts period of time.
By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e. taking one step at a time); their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children of this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding their tricycles (or bicycles), and can be drive them faster.
During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine easier skills. They’re running even faster and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In addition, they can step sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own. They often start jumping rope, skating, hitting balls with bats, and so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning to play organized sports as soccer, basketball, t-bale or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6 years old often like to participate in physical extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or dance. Children continue to refine and improve their gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond.

BRAIN DEVELOPMENT

The human brain begins forming very early in prenatal life (just three weeks after conception), but in many ways, brain development is a lifelong project. That is because the same events that shape the brain during development are also responsible for storing information—new skills and memories—throughout life.
The rational part of a teen's brain isn't fully developed and won't be until age 25 or so. In fact, recent research has found that adult and teen brains work differently. Adults think with the prefrontal cortex, the brain's rational part.
The brain continues to grow for a few years after a person is born and by the age of2 years old, the brain is about 80% of the adult size. You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has most of the neurons it will get when you are born? The answer is in glial cells.
The bran’s ability to change from experience is known as Plasticity. The human brain is especially plastic early in life, which is why the “nurture” part of the equation is so important
Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic-this is the mechanism of learning-but plasticity declines in adulthood.
As a child’s brain develops, it goes through several ’critical periods, a developmental phase in which the brain requires certain environmental input and it will not develop normally.
The Frontal Lobe is the most recently-evolved part of the brain and the last to develop in young adulthood. Its dorso-lateral prefrontal circuit is the brain's top executive.

Early Milestones in Brain Growth

4 months: the infant’s brain responds to every sound produced in all the languages of the world.
8 to 9 months: Babies can form specific memories from their experiences, such as how to push a ball to make it roll.
10 months: Babies can now distinguish and even produce the sounds of their own language (such as “da-da”) no longer pay attention to the sounds of language that are foreign.
12 months: Babies whose parents say, for example” Lookee at the doggie” will go to the appropriate picture of a dog in a picture book more often than those babies who are talked to normal, flatter voices.
12 to 18 months: Babies can keep in memory something that has been hidden and find it again, even if it has completely covered up. They can also hold memory sequences of simple activities, such as winding up a jack-in-the-box until the figure pops up.
24 months: Preschool children now clear picture in mind of people who are dear to them, and the get upset when separated from these people (even their peers)
30 months: Preschool children can hold in mind a whole sequence of spatial maps and know where things are in their environment.
36 months: A preschool child can now two different emotions in his mind at the same time, such as being sad that he spilled ice cream on his cloths but glad that he’s at birthday party.

FACTORS AFFECTING DEVELOPMENT

Maternal Nutrition- the nutritional status of the women during adolescent pregnancy and lactation has a direct impact on the child’s health and development.
Child Nutrition- the Child’s state of nutritional balance is crucial in his early developmental age.
Early Sensory Stimulation- Toys, soothing sounds and other sensorial stimulation contribute to the child’s development.
Heredity and genes certainly play an important role in the transmission of physical and social characteristics from parents to off-springs.

Exceptional Development

Physical Disabilities- Persons with physical disabilities may experience functional, visual, orthopedic, motor, or hearing impairments, which may impact upon their ability to walk, play and learn. Physical disabilities are also often defined and categorized by some degree of limitation in the use of upper or lower extremities and maintaining posture and positioning.
Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) and Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder (ADHD)- Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Hyperkinetic Disorder (as officially known in U.K., through ADHD is more commonly used) is generally considered to be a developmental disorder, largely neurological in nature, affecting about 5% of the world’s population. The disorder typically presents itself during childhood, and is characterized by a present pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity, as well as forgetfulness, poor impulse control or impulsivity and distractibility, ADHD is currently considered to be a persistent and chronic condition for which no medical cure is available ADHD is most commonly diagnosed in children and, over the past decade.

Linguistic and Literary Development

Natural History and Language Development - Language development is a process that starts early in human life, when a person begins to acquire language by learning it as it is spoken and by mimicry. Children’s language development moves from simplicity to complexity. Infants start without language. Yet by four months of age, babies can read lips and discriminate speech sounds.

Usually, language starts off as recall of simple words without associated meaning, but as children age, words acquire meaning, and connections between words are formed, in time, sentences start to form as words are joined together to create logical meaning. As a person gets older, new meaning and new associations are created and vocabulary increases as more words are learned.
Infant use their bodies, vocal cries and other preverbal vocalizations to communicate their wants, needs and dispositions. Even though most children begin to vocalize and eventually verbalize at various ages and at different rates, they learn their first language without conscious instruction from parents or caretakers. It is seemingly effortless task that grows increasingly difficult with age. Of course, before any learning can begin, the child must be biologically and socially mature enough.

Biological Preconditions - Linguist do not all agree on what biological factors contribute to language development, however most do agree that our ability to acquire such a complicated system is specific to the human species, Furthermore, our ability to learn language may have been developed through the evolutionary process and that the foundation for language may be passed down genetically.

Second Preconditions - it is crucial that children are allowed to socially interact with other people who can vocalize and respond to questions. For language acquisition to develop

successfully, children must be in an environment that allows them to communicate socially in that language.

There are a few different theories as to why and how children develop language. The most popular explanation is that language is acquired through imitation. However, this proves to be more of a folk tale than anything. Two most accepted theories in language development are psychological and functional. Psychological explanations focus on the mental processes involved in childhood language learning. Functional explanations look at the social process involved in learning the first language.

Bilingual Language Development

There are two major patters in bilingual language acquisition; simultaneous Bilingualism and Sequential bilingualism. In simultaneous bilingualism, the child acquires two languages at the same time before the age of 3 years. These children may mix words or parts of words from both languages in the first stage. Stage 2 occurs at 4 years and older when distinction between the two languages takes place, and the child uses each language separately. Sequential bilingualism also occurs before the child is 3 years old, but the child can draw in on the knowledge and experience of first language while acquiring the second language.
Detecting delays in the speech and language of multilingual children presents a challenge. The authors state that “the key is to obtain information about the child’s entire language system, not just the primary or secondary language”.
The following “red flags” may indicates that the child who is simultaneously acquiring two languages id experiencing problems with language development.

No sounds by 2-6 months
Less than one new words per week for 6-15 month-old children.
Less than 20 words (in the two languages combined by 20 months: and
No use of word combinations and a very limited vocabulary by age 2-3 years
Red flags for abnormal language development in the sequential acquisition of two language include.
Lack of normal milestones in the first language
Prolonged phase of not talking
Difficulty of retrieving words

FACTORS AFFECTING LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Inadequate stimulation (talking and playing with the child)
Delayed general development (global developmental delay), physical development motor skills), cognitive development etc.
Specific difficulty with language learning. Not very interested in language, prefers other modalities e.g. physical activities
Poor control and/or coordination of the speech muscles; lips, tongue etc.
Medical problems
Inadequate awareness of communication, lacks” communication intent”
Reduced hearing e.g. ear infection, fluid in ear, impacted earwax etc.
Changes in child’s environment e.g. moving
Exposure to too many languages for the child
Inadequate opportunity for speech e.g. the child everyone talks for, the “babied” child has a more dominant sibling etc.
Emotional factors e.g. behavioral problems, anxiety, pressure to perform etc.
Short attention span.
Family history of speech and language delays or difficulties

Exceptional Development Aphasia- Aphasia (or aphmia) is a loss of the ability to produce and/or comprehend language due to

injury to brain areas specialized for these functions. It is not a result of deficits in sensory, intellect, or

psychiatric functioning. Depending on the area and extent of the damage, someone suffering from aphasia may be able to speak but not write, or vice versa, or display any of wide variety of other deficiencies in language comprehension and production, such as being able to sing but not to speak.

Dyslexia-Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that manifests primarily as a difficulty with written language, particularly with reading and spelling. Dyslexia is the result of a neurological differences but is not intellectual disability. Most people with dyslexia have average or above average intelligence.

Evidence suggests that dyslexia results for differences in how the brain processes written and/or verbal language. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as deficiencies in intelligence, a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction.

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

Theories of Cognitive Development. Jean Piaget-Swiss psychologist (1896-1980). His theory provided many central concepts in the field of developmental psychology and concerned the growth of the intelligence, which for Piaget, meant the ability to more accurately represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of the concepts grounded in the world. The theory concerns the emergence and acquisitions of the schemata-schemes, of one perceives the world in the “developmental stages”, time when children are acquiring new ways of mentally representing- information.

Sensorimotor period (years 0 - 2 )

Infants are born with a set of congenital reflexes, according to Piaget, in addition to explore their world. Their initial schemas are formed through differentiation of the congenital reflexes:

The first sub-stage, known as the reflex schema stage, occurs form birth to six weeks and is associated primarily with the developmental reflexes. Three primary reflexes are described by Piaget: sucking of objects in the mouth following moving or interesting objects with the eyes, and closing of the hand when an object makes contact with the palm (palmar grasp). Over this first six weeks of life, these reflexes begin to become voluntary actions; for example, the palmar reflex becomes intentional grasping.
The second sub-stage, primary circular reaction phase, occurs form six weeks to four months and is associates primarily with the development of habits. Primary circular reactions or repeating of an action involving only one’s body begins. An example of this type of reaction would involve something like an infant repeating the motion of passing their hands before their face. The schema developed during this stage inform the infant about the relationships among his body parts (e.g. in passing the hand in form of his eyes he develop a motor schema for moving his arm so that the hand becomes visible.
The third sub-stage, the secondary circular reactions phase, occurs from four to nine months and is associated primarily with the development of coordination between vision and apprehension. Three new abilities occur at this stage: intentional grasping for a desired object, secondary circular reactions, and differentiations between ends and means. At this stage, infants will intentionally grasp the air in the direction of a desired object, often to the amusement of friends, family, younger and older siblings, grandparents, etc. Secondary circular reactions, or the repetition of an action involving an external object begin; for example, moving a switch to turn on a light repeatedly. The differentiation between means also occurs. This is perhaps of one of the most important stages of a child’s growth as it signifies the drawn for logic. However, babies still only have a very early rudimentary grasp of this and most of their discoveries have an “accidental” quality to them in that the initial performance of what will soon become a secondary circular reactions occurs by chance; but the operant conditioning causes the initial “accidental” behavior (which was followed by an “interesting pattern of stimulation) to be repeated. And the ability to repeat the act is the result of primary circular reactions established in the previous stage. For example, when the infant’s hand accidentally makes contact with an object in hid field of vision is based on the primary circular reaction bringing his hand into his field of vision. Thus, the child learns (at the level of schemata) that “if he can see it then he can also touch it” and this results in a schemata which is the knowledge that is external environment is populated with solid objects.
The fourth sub-stage, called the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, which occurs from nine to twelve months, is when Piaget thought that object permanence developed. In addition, the stage is called the coordination of secondary circular reactions stage, and is primarily with the development of logic and the coordination between means and ends, this is extremely important marks the beginning of goal orientation or intentionally, the deliberate planning of steps to meet an objective.
The fifth sub-stage, tertiary circular reactions phase, occurs from twelve to eighteen months and is associated primarily with the discovery of new means to meet goals. Piaget describes the child at this juncture as the “young scientist”, conducting pseudo-experiments to discover new methods of meeting challenges.
The six sub-stage, considered “beginning of symbolic representation”, is associated primarily with the beginnings of insight, or true creativity. In this stag the trial- and error application of schemata, which was observable during the previous stage, occurs internally (at the level of schemata rather than of motor responses), resulting in the sudden appearance of new effective behaviors (without any observable trial-and-error). This is also the time when symbols (words and images) begin to stand for other objects. This marks the passage into the preoperational stage.

Preoperational period (years 2 – 7)

The Preoperational stage is the second of four stage of cognitive development. By observing sequence of play, Piaget was able to demonstrate that towards the end of the second year a qualitatively new kind of psychological functioning occurs (Pre) Operatory Thought in Piagetian theory is any procedure for mentally acting on objects. The hallmark of the preoperational stage is spare and logically inadequate mental operations.

According to Piaget, the Pre Operational stage of development follows the sensorimotor stage and occur between 2-7 years of age. It includes the following processes.

Symbolic functioning- characterized by the use of mental symbols, words, or pictures, which the child uses to represent something which is not physically present
Centration-characterized by a child focusing or attending to only one aspect of a stimulus or situation. For example, in pouring a quantity of liquid from a narrow beaker into a shallow dish, a preschool child might judge the quantity of liquid to have decreased, because it is “lower”- that is, the child attends to the height of the water, but not the compensating increase in the diameter of the container.
Intuitive thought- occurs when the child is able to believe in something without knowing why she or he believes it.
Egocentrism- a version of centration, this denotes a tendency of a child to only think for her or his own point of view. Also, the inability of a child to take the point of view of others. Example, if a child is in trouble, he or she might cover her eyes thinking if I cannot see myself my mom cannot either.
Inability to conserve-though Piaget’s conservation experiments (conservation of mass, volume and number after the original form has been changed. For example, a child in this phase will believe that a string which has up in ”o-o-o-o” pattern will have a larger number of beads than a string which has a oooo: pattern, because the latter pattern has less space between Os; or that a tall, thin 8-ounce cup has more liquid in it than a wide, short 8-ounce cup.
Animism- The child believes that inanimate objects have: lifelike” qualities and are capable of action. Example, a child plays with a doll and treats it likes a real person. In a way this like using their imagination.

Concrete operational period (years 7 – 11)

The Concrete operational stage is the third of four stages of cognitive development in Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Preoperational stage, occurs between the ages 7 and 11 years and is characterized by the appropriate use of logic. Important process during this stage are:

Seriation - the ability to arrange objects in an order according to size, shape, or any other characteristic. For example, if given different-shaded objects they may make a color gradient.
Classification - the ability to name and identify sets of objects according to appearance, size or other characteristic, including the idea that one set of objects can include another, a child is no longer subject to the illogical limitations of animism ( the belief that all objects are alive and therefore have feelings)
Decentering - where the child takes into account multiple aspects of a problem to solve it. For example, the child will no longer perceive an exceptionally wide but short cup to contain less than a normally-wide, taller cup.
Reversibility - where the child understands that numbers or objects can be changed, then returned to their original state. For this reason, a child will be able to rapidly determine that if 4 +4 equals 8, 8/4 will equal 4, the original quantity
Conservation - understanding that quantity, length or number of items is unrelated to the arrangement or appearance of the object or items. For instance, when a child is presented with two equally-sized, full cup they will be able to discern that if water is transferred to a pitcher it will conserve the quantity and be equal to the other filled up.
Elimination of Egocentrism - the ability to view things from another’s perspective (even if they think incorrectly). For instance, show a child a comic in whom Jane puts a doll under the box leaves the room, and then Sarah moves the doll to a drawer, and Jane comes back. A

child in the concrete operation stage will stay that Jane will still think it’s under the box even through the child knows it is in the drawer

Formal operation period (years 11 adulthood) The formal operational period is the fourth and final of the periods of cognitive development in the Piaget’s theory. This stage, which follows the Concrete Operational stage, commences at around 11

years of age (puberty) and continuous into adulthood. It is characterized by acquisition of the ability

to think abstractly, reason logically and draw conclusions from the information available. During this stage the young adult is able to understand such things as love “shades of gray”, logical proofs, and values,

Lev Vygotsky-Psychologist, was born in 1896 in Orsha, Belarys (then a part of the Russian Empire). Vygotsky was tutored privately by Solomon Asphiz and graduated from Moscow State University in 1917. Later, he attended the Institute of Psychology in Moscow (1924-34), where he worked extensively on ideas about cognitive development, particularly the relationship between language and thinking. His writings emphasized the roles of historical cultural, and social factors in cognition and argued that language was the most important symbolic tool provided by society.

Perhaps Vygotsky’s most important contribution concerns the inter-relationship of language development and thought. This concept, explored in Vygotsky’s book “Thinking and Speaking”, establishes the explicit and profound connection between speech (both silent inner speech and oral language), and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. It should be noted that Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different than normal (external) speech, For Vygotsky, social interaction is important for learning, i.e. children learn adults and other children.

PHILOSOPHICAL PROPONENTS

Wilhelm Wundt is the Father of Modern Psychology, was a German physician, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. Wundt, who noted psychology as a science apart from philosophy and biology, was the first person ever to call himself a psychologist.

Sigmund Freud is the Father of Psychoanalysis and Psychosexual Theory. He was an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, a clinical method for treating psychopathology through dialogue between a patient and a psychoanalyst. Freud was born to Galician Jewish parents in the Moravian town of Freiberg, in the Austrian Empire.

Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi is the Father of Modern Education. He was a Swiss pedagogue and educational reformer who exemplified Romanticism in his approach. He founded several educational institutions both in German- and French-speaking regions of Switzerland and wrote many works explaining his revolutionary modern principles of education.

Ivan Pavlov is the proponent of classical conditioning theory and he was a Russian physiologist known primarily for his work in classical conditioning. From his childhood days Pavlov demonstrated intellectual curiosity along with an unusual energy which he referred to as "the instinct for research". Inspired by the progressive ideas which D. I.

Burrhus Frederic Skinner is the proponent for operant conditioning (Instrument), commonly known as B. F. Skinner, was an American psychologist, behaviorist, author, inventor, and social philosopher.

He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology at Harvard University from 1958 until his retirement in 1974.

Edward Lee Thorndike is the proponent for the Laws of Learning (law of readiness, law of exercise & law of effect). He was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology.

Albert Bandura is the proponent for social cognitive learning theory (Modelling), he was a Canadian- American psychologist who is the David Starr Jordan Professor Emeritus of Social Science in Psychology at Stanford University.

David Ausubel was an American psychologist. His most significant contribution to the fields of educational psychology, cognitive science, and science education learning was on the development and research on advance organizers since 1960 and the proponent for his Meaningful Learning Theory.

Jerome Bruner is responsible for human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. He was an American psychologist who made significant contributions to human cognitive psychology and cognitive learning theory in educational psychology. Bruner was a senior research fellow at the New York University School of Law.

Kurt Levin mastered Life Space Concept, known as one of the modern pioneers of social, organizational, and applied psychology in the United States. The approach, developed by Kurt Lewin, is a significant contribution to the fields of social science, psychology, social psychology, organizational development, process management, and change management. His theory was expanded by John R. P. French who related it to organizational and industrial settings.

Wolfgang Kohler specialized in Insight Learning or Problem Solving by Insight, was a German psychologist and phenomenologist who, like Max Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka, contributed to the creation of Gestalt psychology. Insight learning is perhaps the greatest contribution Wolfgang Kohler made to psychology. Building off the influence of Gestalt psychology, Kohler discovered that learning can occur when we gain insight into an entire situation, as opposed to focusing only on an individual part.

Urie Bronfenbrenner - Ecological Systems Theory. (1917-2005) developed the ecological systems theory to explain how everything in a child and the child's environment affects how a child grows and develops. He labeled different aspects or levels of the environment that influence children's development, including the: Microsystem. He was a Russian-born American developmental psychologist who most was known for his ecological systems theory of child development. His scientific work and his assistance to the United States government helped in the formation of the Head Start program in 1965.

Sandra Bem - Gender Schema Theory. He was an American psychologist known for her works in androgyny and gender studies. Her pioneering work on gender roles, gender polarization and gender stereotypes led directly to more equal employment opportunities for women in the United States.

Howard Gardner - Theory of Multiple Intelligence. He believed that the conventional concept of intelligence was too narrow and restrictive and that measures of IQ often miss out on other "intelligences" that an individual may possess. He was an American developmental psychologist and the John H. and Elisabeth A. Hobbs Professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.

Elliot Turiel – Domain Based Moral Education and was an American psychologist and Chancellor’s Professor at the Graduate School of Education at the University of California, Berkeley. He teaches courses on human development and its relation to education.

Robert J. Sternberg - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. These three examples exemplify Robert Sternberg's triarchic theory on intelligence. The triarchic theory describes three distinct types

of intelligence that a person can possess. Sternberg calls these three types practical intelligence, creative intelligence, and analytical intelligence. He was an American psychologist and psychometrician. He is Professor of Human Development at Cornell University. Prior to joining Cornell, Sternberg was president of the University of Wyoming.

Lawrence Kohlberg - Moral Development Theory. The Theory of Moral Development is a very interesting subject that stemmed from Jean Piaget's theory of moral reasoning. Developed by psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg, this theory made us understand that morality starts from the early childhood years and can be affected by several factors. He was an American psychologist best known for his theory of stages of moral development. He served as a professor in the Psychology Department at the University of Chicago and at the Graduate School of Education at Harvard University.

Erik Erikson - Psychosocial Development Theory. He was a German-American developmental psychologist and psychoanalyst known for his theory on psychological development of human beings. He may be most famous for coining the phrase identity crisis. His son, Kai T. Erikson, is a noted American sociologist.

Maria Montessori - Montessori Method, Transfer of Learning. She was an Italian physician and educator best known for the philosophy of education that bears her name, and her writing on scientific pedagogy. Montessori is a method of education that is based on self-directed activity, hands-on learning and collaborative play. In Montessori classrooms children make creative choices in their learning, while the classroom and the teacher offer age-appropriate activities to guide the process.

Edward Paul Torrance - Creativity Problem Solving and considered to be the Father of Creativity. He was an American psychologist from Milledgeville, Georgia. After completing his undergraduate degree at Mercer University, Torrance acquired a Master's degree at the University of Minnesota and then a doctorate from the University of Michigan. His teaching career spanned from 1957 to 1984.

Avram Noam Chomsky - Linguistic (Language) Acquisition Device (LAD). He was an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, and social critic. Sometimes described as "the father of modern linguistics", Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. Noam Chomsky is a contemporary psychologist, linguist, and political activist known both for his theory of innate grammar and for his political activism.

Jean Piaget - Cognitive Development Theory. He was famous through a series of stages, Piaget proposed four stages of cognitive development: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational and formal operational period. He was a Swiss psychologist known for his work on child development. Piaget's theory of cognitive development and epistemological view are together called "genetic epistemology". Piaget placed great importance on the education of children.

John Watson - Behaviorism Theory. He was an American psychologist who established the psychological school of behaviorism. Watson promoted a change in psychology through his address Psychology as the Behaviorist Views it, which was given at Columbia University in 1913. Through his behaviorist approach, Watson conducted research on animal behavior, child rearing, and advertising. In addition, he conducted the controversial "Little Albert" experiment and the Kerplunk experiment. Watson popularized the use of the scientific theory with behaviorism.

Edward Chace Tolman - Purposive Behaviorism. He was an American psychologist. Through Tolman's theories and works, he founded what is now a branch of psychology known as purposive behaviorism. Tolman also promoted the concept known as latent learning first coined by Blodgett.

Bernard Weiner - Attribution Theory on Achievement. He was an American social psychologist known for developing a form of attribution theory which explains the emotional and motivational entailments of academic success and failure. Bernard Weiner got interested in the field of attribution after the first studying achievement motivation.

Daniel Goleman - Emotional Intelligence. He was an author and science journalist. For twelve years, he wrote for The New York Times, reporting on the brain and behavioral sciences. Emotional Intelligence (Goleman) 3 years ago • Motivation Theories • Emotional Intelligence (EQ) is defined as the ability to identify, assess, and control one's own emotions, the emotions of others, and that of groups.

Hermann Ebbinghaus - law of forgetting. The forgetting curve hypothesizes the decline of memory retention in time. This curve shows how information is lost over time when there is no attempt to retain it. A related concept is the strength of memory that refers to the durability that memory traces in the brain. He was a German psychologist who pioneered the experimental study of memory, and is known for his discovery of the forgetting curve and the spacing effect. He was also the first person to describe the learning curve. He was the father of the eminent neo-Kantian philosopher Julius Ebbinghaus.

John Locke - Theory of Association. According to other social contract theorists, when the government fails to secure their natural rights (Locke) or satisfy the best interests of society (called the "general will" in Rousseau), citizens can withdraw their obligation to obey, or change the leadership through elections or other means. He was an English philosopher and physician, widely regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers and commonly known as the "Father of Liberalism".

Edward Thorndike - Belongingness and Connectionism. In 1898, was famous in psychology for his work on learning theory that lead to the development of operant conditioning within behaviorism. Whereas classical conditioning depends on developing associations between events, operant conditioning involves learning from the consequences of our behavior. He was an American psychologist who spent nearly his entire career at Teachers College, Columbia University. His work on comparative psychology and the learning process led to the theory of connectionism and helped lay the scientific foundation for educational psychology.

David McClelland - Needs Achievement Theory or Human Motivation Theory. Human Motivation Theory states that every person has one of three main driving motivators: the needs for achievement, affiliation, or power. These motivators are not inherent; we develop them through our culture and life experiences. He was an American psychologist, noted for his work on motivation Need Theory. He published a number of works during the 1950s and the 1990s and developed new scoring systems for the Thematic Apperception Test and its descendants.

Henry Murray - Theory of Psychogenic Needs. He was an American psychologist at Harvard University. He was Director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic in the School of Arts and Sciences after 1930. Murray developed a theory of personality called personology, based on "need" and "press".

Victor Harold Vroom - Expectancy Theory. Vroom's expectancy theory assumes that behavior results from conscious choices among alternatives whose purpose it is to maximize pleasure and minimize pain. Vroom realized that an employee's performance is based on individual’s factors such as personality, skills, knowledge, experience and abilities. He was a business school professor at the Yale School of Management. He holds a PhD from University of Michigan and an MS and BS from McGill University.

Lev Semyonovich Vysgotsky - Sociocultural Theory or "zone of proximal development" (ZPD). His worked was largely unknown to the West until it was published in 1962. ... It asserts three major themes regarding social interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development. He was a Soviet psychologist, the founder of an unfinished Marxist theory of human cultural and bio-social development commonly referred to as cultural-historical psychology

INFORMATION AND PROCESSING THEORY

There are three primary stages in the Information and Processing Theory:

Encoding- information is sensed, perceived, and attended.
Storage- the information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time depending upon the processes following encoding
Retrieval- The information is found at the appropriate time, and reactivated for use on a current task, the true test of effective memory.

The initial appeal of information processing theories was the idea that cognitive processes could be described in a stage-like model. The stages to processing follow a path along which information is taken into the memory system, and reactivated when necessary. Most theories of information processing center around three main stages in the memory process.

Sensory Register

The first step in the IP model hold ALL sensory information for a VERY BRIEF time period.

Capacity: we hold an enormous amount, more that we can ever perceive.
Duration: Extremely brief- in order of 1 to 3 seconds

The Role of Attention

To move information into consciousness, we need to attend to it. That is, we only have the ability to perceive and remember later those things that pass through the attention gate.

Short Term Memory (working Memory)

Capacity: What you can say about in 2 seconds. Often said to be 7+/_2 items.
Duration: Around 18 seconds or less
To reduce the loss of information in 18 seconds, you need to rehearse
There are two types of rehearsal- Maintenance and Elaborative

Long Term Memory - the final storing house of memorial information, the long term memory store holds information until needed again.

Capacity: unlimited?
Duration: indefinite?

Executive Control Processes

Also known as executive processor, or Metacognitive skills
Guide the flow of information through the system, helps the learner make informed
Example processes-attention, rehearsals, organization
Sometimes call METACOGNITVE SKILLS

The ability to access information when needed

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:
Decay-Information is not attended to, and eventually fades away.
Very prevalent in working memory.
Inference-New or old information blocks’ access to the information in question.

Methods for Increasing the Probability of Remembering

Organization- info that is organized efficiently should be recalled

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