PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION-CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
CHILD AND ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT
CONTENT UPDATE
I. Basic Concepts
Definition of Terms
Childhood
The early stage in the existence or development of an individual.
Time of innocence.
Time of closeness with parents.
Adolescence
A period of transition from childhood to adulthood.
A stage where an individual experiences dramatic changes - biologically, socially, psychologically.
Onset of adolescence sees children as having completed elementary school and are about to enter secondary education.
Ages of adolescence vary by culture
WHO defines adolescence as the period of life between 10 and 19 years of age.
In the US, adolescence is the period that begins between 12 and 14 and ends at 19 or 20.
In the Philippines, adolescence is the period that begins at the age of 13 and ends at 19.
Growth
The progressive increase in an individual’s size, as in weight and height.
Changes which can be measured quantitatively.
Development
Refers to the biological and psychological changes that occur in human beings beginning from conception.
Changes could be observed, but could not be measured quantitatively.
Types of human development
Physical – includes the performance of tasks and abilities, such as walking, running, writing, etc.
Cognitive – changes in the way children think, reason, use language and process information.
Socio-emotional – changes in the way children see themselves and how they act and behave towards other people.
Moral – changes in the way children determine what is right or wrong.
Maturation
Indicates the readiness of the individual to perform a certain task or behaviour in coordination with the nervous system.
Environment
The totality of the surrounding conditions that influence an individual’s growth and development, which includes basic social units such as the family, school, and community.
Developmental Task
Refers to the behaviours that are expected to be manifested at a certain period of an individual’s life which will lead to success in later tasks. Performance of these tasks depend largely on physical maturation, cultural pressure, and learning practices.
Stages of Development
The periods that divide a life span.
Each period emphasizes a given type of behaviour.
Principles of Development
Development is holistic; it consists of inter-dependent dimensions.
Development begins prenatally and learning begins at birth.
The first eight years of a child’s life form the foundation for all later development; early attention to the child’s needs is critical.
Children’s needs differ across the early childhood years.
Development is multi-determined, and varied as a function of the child’s nutritional and biomedical status, genetic inheritance, and social and cultural context.
Children’s development is cumulative in nature, and not necessarily progressive.
Children are active participants in their on development and learning.
Development and learning occur as a result of the child interacting with people and objects in his/her environment.
Children live within a context – family, community, culture – and their needs are most effectively addressed in relation to that context.
Principles of Development (Bustos, 1996)
Development follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.
The rate of development is unique to each individual.
Development involves change.
Early development is more critical than later development.
Development is the product of maturation and learning.
There are individual differences in development.
There are social expectations for every developmentl period which are often referred to as developmental tasks.
Rights of Children and Young Person (PD 603)
“The Child is one of the most important assets of the nation. Every effort should be exerted to promote their welfare and enhance their opportunities for a useful and happy life.”
(PD No. 603: The Child and Youth Welfare Code. Article 1)
In order for the child to grow and develop into a valued Filipino citizen, each child has the legal right:
To be born, to have a name and nationality;
To have a family of his/her own who will provide love, care, understanding, guidance and counseling, moral and material security;
To a well-rounded development of his personality to the end that he may become a happy, useful, and active member of society;
To a balanced diet, adequate clothing, sufficient shelter, proper medical attention, and all the basic physical requirements of a healthy and vigorous life;
To be brought up in an atmosphere of morality, and rectitude for the enrichment and the strengthening of his/her character;
To an education commensurate with his/her abilities and to the development of his/her skills for the improvement of his/her capacity for service to him/herself and his/her fellowmen;
To full opportunities for safe and wholesome recreation and activities, individual as well as social, for the wholesome use of his/her leisure hours;
To protection against exploitation, improper influences, hazards, and other conditions or circumstances prejudicial to his/her physical, mental, emotional, social, and moral development;
To live in a community and a society that can offer an environment free from pernicious influences and conducive to the promotion of his/her health and the cultivation of his/her desirable traits and attributes;
To the care, assistance, and protection of the state, particularly when his/her parents or guardians fail or are unable to provide him/her with his/her fundamental needs for growth, development, and improvement.
To an efficient and honest government that will deepen his/her faith in democracy and inspire him/her with the morality of the constituted authorities both in their public and private lives;
To grow up as a free individual in an atmosphere of peace, understanding, tolerance, and universal brotherhood and with the determination to contribute his/her share in the building of a better world.
II. Stages of Development
Infancy (Birth to 2 years)
Stage of tremendous growth
Infants doubles in height and increases their weight four times.
Bodily proportions change from the head being about one quarter of the body’s length to a more balanced adult-like appearance.
Will begin learning gross motor skills such as sitting, crawling, walking, toilet training, holding a spoon and scribbling.
Infants understand their world through their senses such as touching, tasting, listening, looking and smelling.
Infants’ knowledge is based on physical actions.
Infants’ understanding is contained to the present or immediate past.
If the infant is loved and well-handled, they will develop trust, security and optimism.
Early Childhood (3-7 years)
Time of continued rapid physical growth, fine-motor and gross-motor development.
Physical Development
At age 3, children have higher level of activity; they can walk and run, which make them curious .
Between 3-6 years, fine-motor skills begins to develop as well as their gross-motor skills.
They can control pencils for beginning writing and drawing skills.
They can skip, balance on one foot, climb and dance.
Physical growth slows down between 5-8 years while other motor skills improve and become more refined.
Cognitive development
Cognitive development is rapid because of the acquisition of language skills.
Vocabulary has grown to 1,500 words by the age of 5 years.
Socio-emotional development
The healthy developing child learns to
Imagine and broaden skills through active play;
Cooperate with others; and
Lead as well as follow.
Play is important because
it enables them to use their developing language, thinking, and social skills; and
contribute to their general personality development.
Growth in socioemotional skills include the following:
Formation of peer relationships;
Gender identification; and
Development of a sense of right and wrong.
Middle Childhood (8 years – puberty)
The developmental task of this stage is integration.
Child integrates one’s development as well as integrating him/herself into a wider social context.
Physical Development
Growth is slow and steady until the beginning of puberty.
Baby teeth are replaced by permanent ones.
Cognitive development
Development is slow and steady.
Build skills gained in early childhood.
Reasoning skills are based on rules.
They need concrete, hands-on learning activities.
Gain enthusiasm for learning and work.
Achievements can be motivating as they work on building competence and self-esteem.
Socio-emotional development
Time when children develop their interpersonal skills and social relationships.
Best friends are important but still strongly influenced by the family.
Increased independence, friendships and developing interests in sports, music, and arts.
Adolescence
Begins when an individual reaches sexual maturity (puberty) and ends when they become an adult within their cultural and social context.
In some cultures, this stage may not exist or may be short because reaching puberty may coincide with responsibilities of becoming an adult (getting married and having children)
Physical development
Marked with rapid physical growth.
Growth happens in ‘growth spurts’ (2 years of fast growth followed by 3 or more years of slow but steady growth).
Sexual maturity (puberty) is the most significant physical development.
Females mature between 11-13 years
Males mature at about 15 years.
Cognitive development
Changes in the way they think and reason about problems and ideas.
Early adolescence (12-15 years)
Adolescents think logically about concrete objects and consider more than one viewpoint at one time.
Adolescents benefit more from direct experiences than from abstract ideas and principles.
Late adolescence (16-21 years)
Complex cognitive skills have developed.
Adolescents begin to solve more abstract and hypothetical (what if?) problems.
Plan for the future and reflect on their thoughts
Begin to be aware of the limitations of their thinking.
Can think about ideas that are outside of their experiences.
Socio-emotional development
Adolescents try new roles, new ways of thinking and behaving.
Rely more on their peer group for direction as they try to become more independent.
Begin to pull away from their family influence for identity.
Emotional development
Mood swings as caused by hormone changes or reactions to social, physical, cognitive changes experienced.
Struggles on issues about their self-esteem as they search for their identity.
III. Theories of Development
A. Psychoanalytic Theory – Sigmund Freud
Personality forms during life’s first years
Children pass through psychosexual stages where the Id is focused on pleasure-sensitive areas of the body called erogenous zones.
B. The Psychosocial Theory – Erik Erikson
Erikson believes that people go through 8 stages during their human development.
Each stage provides certain challenges or crises to resolve. People who manage these challenges successfully develop certain positive virtues or strengths. Those who don’t experience difficulties later in life.
Encouraging Initiative in Pre-School Child
Encourage children to make and to act on choices.
Make sure that each child has to experience success.
Encourage make-believe with a variety of roles.
Be tolerant of accidents and mistakes, especially when children are attempting to do things on their own
Encouraging Industry
Make sure that students have opportunities to set and work toward realistic goals.
Give students a chance to show their independence and responsibility.
Provide support to students who are discouraged.
Encouraging Identity Formation
Give students models for career choice and other adult roles.
Help students find resources for working out personal problems.
Be tolerant of teenage fads as long as they don’t offend others or interfere with learning.
Give students realistic feedback about themselves.
Encouraging Self-esteem
Value and accept pupils for their attempts as well as for their accomplishments.
Create a climate that is physically and psychologically safe for everyone.
Be aware of your own personal biases and expectations.
Make standards of evaluation clear and help students evaluate their own accoplishments.
Avoid destructive comparison and competitions.
Accept a student even when you have to reject a particular behavior or outcome.
Supporting Social and Personal Development
Help students examine the kinds of dilemmas they are currently facing or will face in the near future.
Help students see the perspective of others.
Help students make connections between expressed values and actions.
Make sure students are listening to each other.
Make sure that as much as possible your class reflects concern for moral issues and other values.
C. Cognitive Development Theory – Jean Piaget
Views children as active explorers who respond to the environment according to their understanding of its essential features.
Piaget’s key ideas
Adaptation – Knowing the world through
Assimilation The process by which a person takes material into their mind from the environment, which may mean changing the evidence of their senses to make it fit.
Accommodation The difference made to one's mind or concepts by the process of assimilation.
Note that assimilation and accommodation go together: you can't have one without the other.
Classification
The ability to group objects together on the basis of common features.
Class Inclusion
The understanding, more advanced than simple classification, that some classes or sets of objects are also sub-sets of a larger class. (E.g. there is a class of objects called dogs. There is also a class called animals. But all dogs are also animals, so the class of animals includes that of dogs)
Conservation
The realisation that objects or sets of objects stay the same even when they are changed about or made to look different.
Decentration
The ability to move away from one system of classification to another one as appropriate.
Egocentrism
The belief that you are the centre of the universe and everything revolves around you: the corresponding inability to see the world as someone else does and adapt to it. Not moral "selfishness", just an early stage of psychological development.
Operation
The process of working something out in your head. Young children (in the sensorimotor and pre-operational stages) have to act, and try things out in the real world, to work things out (like count on fingers): older children and adults can do more in their heads.
Schema (or scheme)
The representation in the mind of a set of perceptions, ideas, and/or actions, which go together.
Divides cognitive development into four major stages
How to Teach a Pre-operational Child
Use concrete props and visual aids
Make instructions relatively short, using actions as well as words
Don’t expect them to be consistent in their ability to see the world from somebody’s point of view
Give children a great deal of hand-on practice on skills that serve as building blocks for more complex skills
How to Teach a Concrete Operational Child
Continue using visual aids/concrete props, especially when dealing with sophisticated materials
Continue to give students a chance to manipulate or test objects
Presentations must be brief and well-organized
Use familiar examples to explain more complex ideas
Give opportunities to classify and group objects and ideas on increasingly complex levels.
Present problems that require logical, analytical thinking.
Helping Students Use Formal Operations
Use concrete-operational teaching strategies and materials.
Give opportunities for students to explore many hypothetical questions.
Give opportunities to solve problems and reason scientifically.
Teach broad concepts rather than facts, using materials and ideas relevant to students’ lives.
Implications of Piaget’s Theory for Teaching
Focuses on the process of children’s thinking, not just its products.
Recognition of the crucial role of children’s active involvement in learning activities.
Promotion of child-centered teaching and learning practices.
Acceptance of individual differences in the developmental processes.
D. Socio-Cultural Theory of Cognitive Development – Lev Vgotsky
Cognitive (thinking and reasoning) development is understood only in terms of the historical and cultural contexts children experience.
Cognitive development depends on the sign systems that the individual grows up with: the symbols that cultures create to help people think, communicate and solve problems.
Cognitive development is dependent on a child’s interaction with those around him; social stimulation aids mental and language development.
Concepts of Vgotsky
Self-regulation through self-talk or private speech.
Zone of Proximal Development
The distance between a child’s actual development level and a higher potential development obtained through adult guidance
Scaffolding
A system of providing a lot of support at the beginning of a new learning task and then gradually withdraw as learning takes place
Cooperative Learning
Children work together to help each other learn.
Implications for Teaching
Curriculum must be developmentally appropriate.
The use of cooperative learning arrangements
The use of scaffolding.
E. Cognitive Development by Jerome Bruner
The human mind gains inputs through the senses, processes them through cognitive abilities and produces outputs employing language and creative expression.
Stages in the cognitive development by Bruner
Enactive stage (0-18 months) – children respond to sensory stimuli
Iconic stage (18 months-6 years) – children view the world through concrete representations
Symbolic stage (6 years onwards) – the individual can handle abstract representations, using his thinking skills to understand things.
F. The Behaviorist Theory of Development – John Watson
Basic premise of Watson’s ‘behaviorism’
The mind of an infant is ‘tabula rasa’ and that learned associations between stimuli and responses are the building blocks of human development.
Development does not proceed through series of stages; it is a continuous process marked by the gradual acquisition of new and more sophisticated behavioral pattern or habits.
Only the simplest human reflexes are inborn and that important behavioral tendencies, including traits, talents, values and aspirations are learned.
G. Moral Development Theory – Lawrence Kohlberg
Level 1: Precoventional Morality
Young children do not really understand the conventions or rules of a society
Manifested by avoiding punishment and receiving benefits in return
Stage 1: Punishment-Obedience Orientation
Perspective: One’s own
Motive: One’s needs
Standards: Other people
Criteria: Consequences
Stage 2: Reward Orientation
Perspective: One’s own and another’s
Motive: Satisfy own needs and those of others
Standards: Other people’s behavior
Criteria: Fairness; reciprocity
Level 2: Conventional Morality
Individuals 9-20 years old conform to the conventions or rules of society
Manifested by respecting authority
Stage 3: Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation
Perspective: Another person’s
Motive: Approval
Standards: Internalized rules of what is proper
Criteria: Living up to expectations
Stage 4: Authority Orientation/Authority
Maintaining Morality
Perspective: Society/community
Motive: Uphold the law
Standards: Rules and laws of behavior
Criteria: Compliance with the law
Level 3: Postconventional Morality
Moral principles that underlie the conventions of a society are understood
Manifested through mutual agreement and consistent principles
Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation/
Morality Contract & Democracy
Perspective: Society’s
Motive: Maintain social order
Standards: Law
Criteria: Justice
Stage 6: Ethical Principle Orientation/
Morality of the Individual
Principles of Conscience
Perspective: Society
Motive: Human rights for all
Standards: Personal principle
Criteria: Universal moral code
IV. Brain Development
The brain’s ability to change from experience is known as plasticity.
The human brain is especially plastic early in life, which is why the “nurture” part of the equation is important.
Throughout life the brain continues to be plastic – which is the mechanism for learning. This however, declines in adulthood.
Parts of the Brain
Frontal lobe
Helps control skilled muscle movements, mood, planning for the future, setting goals and judging priorities.
Medulla oblongata
Contains centers for the control of vital processes such as heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and swallowing.
Occipital lobe
Helps process visual information
Parietal lobe
Receives and processes information about temperature, taste, touch, and movement coming from the rest of the body. Reading and arithmetic are also processed in this region.
Pons
Contains centers for the control of vital processes, including respiration and cardiovascular functions. It also is involved in the coordination of eye movement and balance.
Temporal lobe
Processes hearing, memory and language functions.
The Infant Brain
Facts
A child’s brain is developing from the moment of conception.
Most of the child’s brain cells are produced between the 4th and 7th month of pregnancy.
Increase in weight of the infant’s brain is due to the development of dendrites and axons and connections between neurons and the myelin coverings of the axons, referred to as the neural network.
Neural network
These are synaptic connections between neurons.
The number of connections increases after birth.
Pruning is the removal of excess or weak connections.
At birth, there is some visual ability;
At age 2-3 months there is a rapid synaptic development in the area of the brain responsible for processing visual input;
The area responsible for controlling emotions or making decisions occurs later.
Motor development follows a consistent pattern
Pattern of motor development
From ‘top to bottom’ (cephalocaudal)
Control over the head and eyes (top) occurs before control over the arms and legs (bottom).
From ‘inner to outer’ (proximodistal)
Control over the arms (inner) occurs before control of the hands and fingers (outer)
Sensory Motor System
Describes how the brain processes and controls the motor activities (movement) and sensory experiences.
Sensory experiences and motor experiences are closely intertwined in the brain. Thus it is important that infants spend time
developing relationships with other people;
playing and exploring different materials; and
doing activities involving movement.
Myelinisation
The process of developing the myelin sheath which starts before birth, proceeds quickly until about 4 years and is completed in adolescence.
Continues along connections between the area of the brain which controls movement and the area which produces movement which takes until about age 4 years to complete.
Fine motor skills won’t be complete until about 4 years of age.
The Childhood Brain
Assisting the childhood brain development
Between ages 2-5 years, the child’s neural network is still expanding. The following experiences assist with their brain development:
unstructured exploratory (free) play time
parents should read to the child often
teach them rhyming games and the alphabet
choose ‘high touch’ toys instead of toys with batteries
provide simple toys that encourage imagination
talk to them and ask questions
The brain of the child weighs about 90% of the adult brain by 10 years old.
The brain of the child between 5-12 years is ready to learn how to read, write, calculate, and reason.
The 5-12-year old child has developed more social awareness and a wider awareness of the world around him/her.
Can already know what he/she likes and develops interests in hobbies and sports.
Synapses have reached the maximum number and there is heavy pruning of the weak or rarely used synapses.
Motor skills become refined through play.
The child improves his/her running, climbing, jumping, skipping, riding a bicycle and playing sports.
Better handwriting skill indicates the development of motor control.
The Adolescent Brain
Significant structural changes in an adolescent’s brain:
There is brain cell thickening.
Massive changes in the synaptic reorganization is completed by 30 years of age.
A brain in this condition can be unstable, unpredictable, and volatile.
Refining of gross and motor skills.
Peak physical motor development is reached between 18-30 years of age.
Chemical changes in the adolescent brain
Melatonin which is associated with sleep regulation is found to at a low level.
Most adolescents will want to go to bed later and get up later.
Four periods of rapid brain development
The first year of life
7-8 year old
11-12 years old
18-19 years old
Exposure to proper stimulation and learning experiences can facilitate a rapid rate of learning
V. Exceptional Development
Exceptional Development
Individuals whose physical, sensory, mental or behavioral performance is different from the norm or the average (either lower or higher)
The condition these individuals have require additional services or assistance to meet their special needs
Who are the exceptional learners?
Those who are gifted
Those with physical disabilities
Those with sensory impairments
Those with mental retardation
Those with mental or emotional disorders
Those with learning disabilities
Impairment or disability
Terms used when exceptional development is lower than the norm
Definition of Terms
Giftedness
It is defined in terms of multiple qualities, not all of which is intellectual. It also includes motivation and creativity.
Impairment
Describes a part of the body that is missing or not working properly
Disability
The inability to do something because of an impairment
Handicap
How a disability affects the person’s life, which is imposed by society, the environment or the person’s attitude.
Physical Disabilities
Disabilities that cripple
Impairment of the bone and muscles system which affects mobility and manual dexterity difficult and impossible
Impairment of the nerve and muscle systems making mobility awkward and uncoordinated
Deformities or absence of body organs and systems necessary for mobility
Types of physical disability
Genetic or inborn
Cerebral palsy
Difficulty moving and coordinating their body due to brain damage before or during childbirth or during infancy.
Spina Bifida
Malformed or badly formed vertebrae at birth
Muscular Dystrophy
Hereditary weakness and wasting of the skeletal muscles
Spinal Cord injury
b. Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD)
Physical and motor skill disorders not related to brain damage or cerebral palsy.
Manifestations of DCD
Child’s performance of activities requiring motor coordination is below what would be expected for their age.
Child’s academic achievement and daily living activities are disturbed because of developmental delay.
The delay in development is not caused by any known physical disorder.
3. In the general classroom, students who have physical disabilities include
Those who have difficulty holding things or moving their hands or arms, but can walk and talk.
Those who have difficulty walking on one leg or both, but can hold things and talk.
Those who have difficulty moving one arm and one leg; sometimes having difficulty walking.
Those who cannot walk, but can use their arms. Usually these children can talk.
Sensory Disabilities
Sensory disabilities
Involve the lack of ability to process information through the senses.
Visual Impairment
Describe people who cannot see very well.
Low vision – a person who can see little
Functionally blind – a person who sees very little or nothing at all
Indicators of visual impairment
Holding books either very close or very far from their eyes.
Squinting and rubbing eyes often and saying their eyes are burning or itching.
Reading incorrectly print on the board.
Saying their vision is blurred or sensitive to light.
Holding their heads at an angle.
Hearing Impairment
Describe people who cannot hear very well
Hard of hearing – a person who can hear a little
Deaf or Profoundly deaf – a person who only hears very loud sounds and cannot talk clearly
Kinds of deafness
Prelingual
Postlingual
Classification of Hearing Impairment
According to age at onset of deafness
Congenitally deaf
Adventitiously
According to language development
Prelingually deaf
Postlingually deaf
According to place of impairment
Conductive hearing loss
Sensory neural hearing loss
Mixed hearing loss
According to degree of hearing loss
Slight
Mild
Moderate
Severe
profound
Indicators of hearing impairment
Turns one ear towards the speaker
Misunderstands conversation when the speaker’s face is not seen
Unable to follow instructions accurately
Appears to be distracted or confused at times
Asks people to repeat what has been said
Says new words incorrectly
Avoids participation in class discussion
May have frequent earaches, sinus infections, or allergies
Attention Deficit –Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
Difficulty of a student to maintain attention and engagement on a task because of a limited ability to concentrate.
Includes impulsive actions, attention deficits and sometimes hyperactive behaviors
Symptoms of ADHD
Inattention and/or
Excessive restlessness
Indicators of ADHD
Makes careless mistakes with no close attention to details
Has difficulty in sustaining attention in play activities
Does not seem to listen when spoken directly
Has difficulty organizing tasks and activities
Does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace
Avoids tasks that require sustained mental effort
Loses things that are necessary for tasks or activities
Is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
Is forgetful of daily activities
Impulsivity indicators
Blurts out the answer before the question is completed
Has difficulty waiting to take their turn
Interrupts or intrudes on others in conversations or games without being invited or asked to join in
Hyperactivity indicators
Fiddles and fidgets with hands or feet or wriggles in seat
Leaves seat in classroom or cannot stay seated in other situations when it is expected
Runs about or climbs excessively (more than is normal) in situations which are inappropriate
Has difficulty playing quietly or engaging in leisure activities quietly
Talks excessively (nore than normal)
“On the go” or often acts as if “driven by a motor” and cannot stay still
Learning Disabilities
1. Aphasia
It is a disorder that interferes with speech and language processing.
It is a symptom of brain damage resulting from a brain tumor, infection, head injury or dementia.
Types of aphasia
Expressive aphasia – difficulty in conveying thoughts through speech or writing.
Receptive aphasia – difficulty understanding spoken or written language.
Anomic or amnesia aphasia – difficulty in using the correct names for particular objects, people, places, or events
Global aphasia – results from severe or extensive damage of the language areas of the brain.
Implications for teaching
Simplify language by using short, uncomplicated sentences.
Repeat the content words or write down key words to clarify meaning as needed.
Maintain natural conversational manner appropriate for the child.
Minimize distractions, such as loud noises and movement inside the classroom, when possible.
Encourage and praise any type of communication, whether it is speech, gesture or drawing.
Allow the child plenty time to talk.
Dyslexia
It is a type specific learning disability in which a child has difficulty learning to read and understand written language.
Symptoms
Confusion over the direction letters face
Difficulties with left and right
Difficulties in keeping organized
Difficulties in spelling
Difficulties with direction
Missing out words when reading
Implications to Teaching
Teach in direct and structured methods, with lot of teacher guidance.
Alphabetic code should be broken into small units, with extra practice in hearing and manipulating the individual sounds.
Learning activities should use all (or most) of the senses. This will help students to remember their learning.
The same material needs to be presented many times to enable dyslexic students to learn.
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