PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION-CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 1
Understanding Curriculum
Curriculum was seen as a tradition of organized knowledge taught in schools of the 19th century. Curriculum is the heart of the teaching profession. Teacher is guided by some sort of curriculum in the classroom and in schools.
Two century later, the concept of a curriculum has broadened to include several modes of taught or experience. No formal, non-formal or informal education exists without a curriculum. Classrooms will be empty with no curriculum. Teachers will have nothing to do, if there is no curriculum.
Philippine education system, different schools are established in different educational levels which have corresponding recommended curricula .The educational levels are:
1. Basic Educational. This level includes Kindergarten, Grade 1 to 6 for elementary, and for secondary, Grade 7 to Grade 10, for the Junior High School and Grade 11 and 12 and for the senior High School. Each of the levels has its specific recommended curriculum.
2. Technical Vocational Education. This is post-secondary technical vocational educational and training taken care of by Technical Education and Skills Development Authority
(TESDA). For the TechVoc track in SHS of DepEd, DepEd and TESDA work in close coordination.
3. Higher Education. This includes the Baccalaureate or Bachelor Degrees and the Graduate Degrees (Master’s and Doctorate) which are under the regulation of the Commission on Higher Education(CHED)
Different Type if Curriculum
1. Recommended Curriculum. Almost all curricula found in our schools are recommended. The three government agencies oversee and regulate Philippine Education. The recommendations come in the form of memoranda or policies, standards and guidelines.
2. Written Curriculum. This includes documents based on the recommended curriculum. They become in the form of course of study, syllabi, modules, books or instructional guides among others. A packet of this written curriculum is the teacher’s lesson plan.
3. Taught Curriculum. From what is written or planned, the curriculum has to be implemented or taught. The teacher and the learners will put life to the written curriculum.
4. Supported Curriculum. This is describe as support materials that teacher needs to make learning and teaching meaningful. These print materials like books, charts, posters, or non-prints like power Point presentation, movies, slides. Supported curriculum also includes facilities where learning occurs outside or inside the four walled-building. These are the places where authentic learning through direct experience.
5. Assessed Curriculum. Taught and supported curricula have to be evaluated to find out if the teacher has succeeded or not in facilitating learning. The process is to find the progress of learning, then the assessed is for learning, but if it is to find out how much has been learned or mastered, then it is assessment of learning.
6. Learned Curriculum. If student the student changed behaviour, he/she has learned. These measured by tools in assessment, which can indicate the cognitive, affective and psychomotor outcomes. Learned curriculum will also demonstrate higher order and critical thinking and lifelong skills.
7. Hidden/Implicit Curriculum. This curriculum is not deliberately planned, but has a great impact on the behavior of the learner. Peer influence, school environment, media, parental guidance, are some factors that create the hidden curriculum. Teachers should be sensitive and aware of this hidden curriculum.
In every teacher’s classroom, not all these curricula may be presented at one time. Many of them are deliberately planned, like the recommended, written, taught, supported, assessed, and learned curricula. A hidden curriculum is implied. All of these have significant role on the life of the teachers as a facilitator of learning and have direct implication to the life of the learners.
The Teacher as a Curricularist
1. Knows the Curriculum. The teacher as learner starts with knowing about the curriculum, the subject matter or the content. It is the mastery of the subject matter.
2. Write the Curriculum. A classroom teacher takes record of the knowledge concepts, subject matter, or the content. These needs to be written or preserved. The teacher writes books, modules, laboratory manuals, instructional guides, and reference materials in paperas curriculum writer or reviewer.
3. Plans the Curriculum. A good curriculum has to planned. It is the role of the teacher to make a yearly, monthly or daily plan of the curriculum. This will serve as a guide in the implementation of the curriculum. The teacher takes into consideration several factors in planning a curriculum. The teacher becomes a curriculum planner.
4. Initiates the Curriculum. The curriculum is recommended to the schools from DepEd, CHED, TESDA, UNESCO, UNICEF or other educational agencies for improvement of quality education, the teacher is obliged to implement.
5. Innovates the Curriculum. The curriculum that remains recommended or written will never serve its purpose.it is this role where the teacher becomes the curriculum implementor . The teacher is at the height of an engagement with the learners, with support materials in order to achieved the desire outcome.
6. Evaluates the Curriculum. How can one determine if the desired learning outcomes have been achieved? Is the curriculum working? Does it bring the desired results? What do outcomes reveal? Are the learner achieving? These are some few questions that need the help of a curriculum evaluator. That per son is the teacher (evaluator).
Some Definition of Curriculum
1. Curriculum is a planned and guided set of learning experiences and intended outcomes, formulated through the systematic reconstruction of knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school, for the learners’ continuous and willful growth in personal social competence.”(Daniel Ttanner,1980)
2. it is a written document that systematically describes goals planned, objectives, content, learning activities, evaluation procedures and so forth.(Pratt, 1980)
3. It is a programme of activities(by teachers and pupils) designed so that pupils will attain so far as possible certain educational and other schooling ends or objectives.
Curriculum from Traditional Points of View
The traditional points of view of curriculum were advanced by Robert Hutchins, Arthur Bestor, and Joseph Schwab.
Robert Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies” where rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric, logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. The 3Rs (reading, writing, rithmetic) should be emphasized in basic education while liberal education should be emphasis in college.
Arthur Bestor the mission of the school should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual discipline of grammar, literature and writing.
Joseph Schwab thinks that the sole source of curriculum is a discipline. In college, academic disciplines are labelled. He coined the word discipline as ruling doctrine for curriculum development.
Phillip Phenix asserts that curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines.
Curriculum from Progressive Points of View
John Dewey believes that education is experiencing . reflective thinking is a means that unifies curricular elements that are tested by application.
Holin Caswell and Kenn Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under the guidance of the teacher.
Othaniel Smith, William Stanley and Harlan Shore a sequenced of potential experiences, set up ins schools for the purpose of disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
Colin Marsh and George Willis viewed curriculum as all the experiences in the classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher and also learned by the students.
Approaches to the School Curriculum
1. Curriculum as a Content or Body of Knowledge
It is quiet common for traditionalists to equate a curriculum as a topic outline, subject matter, or concepts to include in the syllabus or books. Example is in secondary school science that involves the study of the biological science, physical science, environmental science and earth science. If curriculum is equated a content, then then the focus will be the body of knowledge to be transmitted to students using appropriate teaching method.
Criteria in the Selection of Content
1. Significance - Content should contribute to ideas, concepts, principles and generalization that should attain the overall purpose of the curriculum.
2. Validity – The authenticity of the subject matter forms its validity. Knowledge becomes obsolete with the fast changing times.
3. Utility – Useful of the content in the curriculum is relative to the learners who are going to use these. Utility can be relative to time. It may have useful to the past, but may not useful now or in the future.
4. Learnability – Complexity of the content should be within the range of experience of the learners. This is based on the psychological principles of learning.
5. Feasibility – Can the subject content be learned within the time allowed, resources available, expertise of the teacher and the nature of the learners? Are there contents of learning which can be learned beyond the formal-learning which can be learned beyond the formal teaching-learning engagement? Are there opportunities provided to learn these?
6. Interest -Will the learners take interest in the content? Why? Are the contents meaningful? What value will the contents have in the present and the future life of the learners? Interest is the one of the driving forces for students to learn better.
1. Commonly used in the daily life
2. Appropriate to the maturity levels and abilities of the learners
3. Valuable in the meeting the needs and competencies of the future career
4. Related to other subject fields or discipline for complementation and integration
5. Important in the transfer of learning to other disciplines
BASIC Principles of Curriculum Content
Balance – Content should be fairly distributed in the depth and breadth. This will guarantee that significant contents should be covered to avoid too much or too little of the contents needed within the time collection.
Articulation - The content complexity progress with the educational levels, vertically or horizontally, across the same discipline smooth connections or bridging should be provided. This will assure no gaps or overlaps in the content.
Sequence – The logical arrangement of the content refers to the sequence or order. The pattern usually is from easy to complex, what is known to the unknown, what is current to something in the future.
Integration – content in the curriculum does not stand alone or in isolation. Contents should be infused in other disciplines whenever possible. This will provide a wholistic or unified view of curriculum instead of segmentation.
Continuity – Content when viewed as a curriculum should continuously flow as it was before, to where it is now, and where it will in the future. It should be perennial. It endures time. Constant repetition, reinforcement and enhancementof content are all elements of continuity.
2. Curriculum as a Process
Curriculum as a process is seen as a scheme about the practice of teaching. It is not the package of materials or syllabus of content to be covered. The process of teaching and learning becomes the central concern of teachers to emphasize critical thinking, thinking-meaning-making and heads-on, hands on doing many matters others.
As a process, curriculum links to the content. When accomplished, the process will result to the various curriculum experiences for the learners. The intersection of the content and process is called the Pedagogical Content Knowledge or PCK
When curriculum is approached as a PROCESS, guiding principles are presented.
1. Curriculum process in the form of teaching methods or strategies are means to achieve the end.
2. There is no single best process or method. Its effectiveness will depend on the desired learning outcomes, the learners, support materials and the teacher.
3. Curriculum process should stimulate the learners’ desire to develop the cognitive, affective, psychomotor domains in each individual.
4. In the choice of methods, learning and teaching styles should be considered.
5. Every method or process should result to learning outcomes which can be described as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility in the use of the process or methods should be considered. An effective process will always result to learning outcomes.
7. Both teaching and learning are the two important process in the implementation of the curriculum.
3. Curriculum as a Product
Besides viewing curriculum as a content that is to be transmitted, or process that gives action using the content, it has also viewed as a product. The product from the curriculum is a student equipped with the knowledge, skills and values to function effectively and efficiently. The real purpose of education is to bring significant changes in students’ pattern of behaviour.
It is important that any statement of objectives or intended outcomes of the school should be a statement of changes to take place in the students. Products of learning operationalized as knowledge, skills, and values.
Curriculum product is expressed in form of outcomes which are referred to as the achieved learning outcomes. These learned or achieved learning outcomes are demonstrated by the person who has the meaningful experience curriculum. All of these are result of planning, content and process in the curriculum.
Curriculum Development: Processes and Models
Curriculum Development Process
Curriculum development is a dynamic process involving many different people and procedures. Development connotes changes which is systematic.
1. Curriculum Planning considers the school vision, mission and goals. It is also includes the philosophy or strong education belief of the school.
2. Curriculum Designing is the way of curriculum is conceptualized to include the selection and organization of content, the selection and organization of learning experiences. The selection of the assessment procedure and tools to measure achieved learning outcomes.
3. Curriculum Implementing putting into action the plan which is based on the curriculum design in the classroom setting or the learning environment. Implementing the curriculum is where action takes place. It involves the activities that transpire in every teacher’s classroom where learning becomes an active process.
4. Curriculum Evaluating determines the extent to which the desired outcomes have been achieved. Evaluation will determine the factors that have hindered or supported the implementation. Also pinpoint where improvement can be made and corrective measures, introduced. The result of evaluation is very important for decision making of curriculum planners, and implementors.
Curriculum Development Process Models
1. Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles
Also known as Tyler’s Rationale, the curriculum development model emphasizes the planning phase. This is presented in his book Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.
He posited four fundamental principles which are illustrated as answers to the following questions:
1. What education purposes should schools seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provide that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How these educational experienced be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not?
Tyler’s model shows that in curriculum development, the following consideration should be made:
1. Purpose of the school
2. Educational experiences related to the purposes
3. Organization of the experiences
4. Evaluation of the experience
2. Hilda Taba Model: Grassroots Approach
Hilda Taba improved on Tyler’s model. Taba begins from the bottom, rather than from the top as what Tyler proposed. She presented seven major steps to her linear model which are the following:
1. Diagnosis of learners’ needs and expectation of the larger society
2. Formulation of learning objectives
3. Selection of learning contents
4. Organization of learning contents
5. Selection of learning experience
6. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it
3. Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model
Galen Saylor and William Alexander Curriculum Model (1974) viewed curriculum development as consisting of four steps.
1. Goals, Objectives and Domains. Curriculum planners begin by specifying the major educational goals and specific objectives they wish to accomplish. The goals, objectives and domains are identified and chosen based on research findings, are identified and chosen based on research findings, accreditation standards, and views of different stakeholders.
2. Curriculum Designing. Designing a curriculum follows after appropriate learning opportunities are determined and how each opportunity is provided.
3. Curriculum Implementation. A designed curriculum is now ready for implementation. Teachers prepare instructional plans where instructional objectives are specified and appropriate teaching methods and strategies are utilized to achieve the desired learning outcomes among students.
4. Evaluation. The last step of the curriculum model is evaluation. A comprehensive evaluation using variety of evaluation techniques is recommended. Through the evaluation process, curriculum planner and developers can determine whether or not the goals of the school and the objectives of instruction have been met.
Foundation of Curriculum Development
Foundation of Curriculum
1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makes must have a philosophy or strong belief about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the learning environment.
John Dewey influenced the use of “learning by doing”, he being pragmatist. Or to an essentialist, the focus on the fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic are essential subjects in the curriculum.
There are many philosophies in the education but we will illustrate only those presented by Ornstein and Hunkins in 2004.
A. Perennialism
Aim: To educate the rational person; cultivate intellect
Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason(critical thinking HOTS)
Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis. Curriculum is enduring.
Trend: Use of great books( Bible, Koran, Classics ) and liberal arts.
B. Essentialism
Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent.
Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area
Focus: Essential skills of the 3R’s; essential subjects
Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy.
C. Progressivism
Aim: Promote democratic social living
Role: Teachers leads for growth and development of lifelong learners.
Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects.Llearner-centered.Outcomes-based
Trends: Equal oppurtunities for all, Contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education.
D. Reconstructionism
Aim: To improve and reconstruct the society.
Role: Teachers acts as agent of change and reforms
Focus: Present and future educational landscape
Trends: School and Curricular reform, global education, collaboration and convergence, standards and competencies.
2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to us the chronological development along a time line. Here are eight among the many; we consider having great contributions/theories and principles.
1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956)
He started the curriculum development movement.
Curriculum is a science that emphasizes student’ needs.
Curriculum prepares learners for adult life
Objective and activities should group together when task are clarified
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952)
He posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes students’ needs.
Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to objectives.
3. William Killpatrick (1875-1952)
The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. He introduced this project method where teacher and student plan a activities.
Curriculum Develops social relationships and small group instruction.
4. Harold Rugg (1886-1960)
Curriculum should develop the whole child. It is child centered.
Emphasized social studies and suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance.
5. Hollis Caswell (1901-1989)
Curriculum is organized around social functions of themes, organized knowledge and learners’ interests.
Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners’ interests.
6. Ralph Tyler (1902-1994)
Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.
The process emphasizes problem solving. Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.
7. Hilda Taba (1902-1994)
Contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development and critical thinking in social studies curriculum.
8. Peter Oliva (1992-2012)
He described how curriculum change is a cooperative endeavor.
Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute the professional core of planners.
3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum
Psychology provides a basis to understand the teaching and learning process.it unifies the elements of the learning process.
Association and Behaviorism
1. Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
2. Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
3. Robert Gagne (1916-2002)
Cognitive Information Processing Theory
1. Jean Piaget (1896-1980)
2.Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)
3.Howard Gardner
4. Daniel Goleman
Emotions contain the power to affect action.
He called this Emotional Quotient
Humanistic Psychology
1. Gestalt
Gestalt Theory
Learning is explained in terms of “ wholeness” of the problem.
Human beings do not respond to isolated stimuli but to an organization or pattern stimuli.
Keys to Learning
Learning is complex and Abstract
Learners analyze the problem.
2. Abraham Maslow (1908-1970)
He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory and classic theory of human needs
He put importance to human emotions, based on love and trust.
Key to learning
Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or human self.
3. Carl Rogers (1902-1987)
Nondirective and therapeutic Learning
He established counselling procedures and methods for facilitating learning.
Key to Learning
Curriculum is concern with process, not product.
Social Foundation of Curriculum
1. School and Society
Society as source of damage
Schools as agents of change
Knowledge as an agent of change
2. John Dewey (1859-1952)
Considered two fundamental elements (school and civil society) to be major topics needing attention to encourage experimental intelligence and plurality
3. Alvin Toffler
Wrote the book Future Shock
Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the furture
Chapter 2
Crafting the Curriculum
Fundamentals of curriculum Designing
Peter Oliva’s 10 Axioms for Curriculum Designers
Before a teacher designs a curriculum, it is important to connect to the fundamentals concepts and ideas about the curriculum
1. Curriculum change is inevitable, necessary and desirable.
2. Curriculum is a product of its time.
3. Curriculum changes made earlier can exist concurrently with newer curriculum changes.
4. Curriculum change depends on people who will implement the change.
5. Curriculum development is a cooperative group activity.
6. Curriculum development is a decision-making process made from choices of alternatives.
7. Curriculum development is an ongoing process.
8. Curriculum development is more effective if it is a comprehensive process, rather than a “peacemeal”.
9. Curriculum development is more effective when it follows a systematic process
10. Curriculum development starts from where the curriculum where the curriculum is.
Elements or Components of a Curriculum Design
There are many labels or names for curriculum design. Some call it syllabus or lesson plan, unit plan or course design. Whatever is the name of the design, the common components for all of them are almost the same.
I. Behavioral Objectives or Intended Learning Outcomes
Begin with the end in view. The objectives or intended learning outcomes are the reasons for undertaking the learning lesson from the student’s point of view; As a curriculum designer, the beginning of the learning journey is the learning outcomes to be achieved.
Andersen and Krathwohl, 2003 revised the Bloom’s Taxonomy of Objectives. For the affective skills, the taxonomy is made by Krathwohl and for the psychomotor domain by Simpson.
S- Specific
M- Measurable
A- Attainable
R- Result oriented
T- Time bound
II. Content/Subject Matter
Subject matter should be relevant to the outcomes of the curriculum.
Subject matter should be appropriate to the level of the lesson or unit.
Subject matter should be up to date and, if possible, should reflect current knowledge and concepts.
III. Reference
The references follow the content. It tells where the content or subject matter has been taken.
1.Project Wild (1992) K to 12 Activity Guide, An Interdisciplinary, Supplementary Conservation and environmental Education Program. Council of Environmental Education, Bethesda. MD
2.Shipman, James and Jerry Wilson, et al (2009). An introduction to physical science. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boston MA
3. Romo, Salvador B. (2013). Horticulture an Explanatory Course. Lorimar Publishing INC. Quezon City
4, Bilbao, Purita P. and Corpuz. Brenda B. et al (2012). The teaching Profession 2nd Ed. Lorimar Publishing INC. Quezon City
IV. Teaching and Learning Methods
These are the activities where the learners derive experiences. It is always good to keep in mind the teaching strategies that students will experience (lectures, laboratory classes, fieldwork etc.)and make them learn
Example:
Cooperative learning activities allow students to work together. Students are guided to learn on their own to find solutions to their problems.
Competitive activities, where students will test their competencies against another in a healthy manner allow learners to perform to their maximum.
V. Assessment/Evaluation
Learning occurs most effectively when students receive feedback, i.e. when they receive information in what they have already learned.
Self-assessment, through which students learn to monitor and evaluate their own learning.
Peer assessment, in which students provide feedback on each other’s learning.
Teacher assessment, in which the teacher prepares and administers tests and gives feedback on the student’s performance.
Assessment may be formative (providing feedback to help the student to learn more) or summative (expressing a judgement on the student’s achievement by reference to stated criteria)
Application of the Fundamental Components to Other Curriculum Designs
Major Components of a Course Design or Syllabus
1. Intended Outcomes (or Objectives)
2. Content/Subject Matter (with references)
3. Methods/Strategies (with needed resources)
4. Evaluation (means of assessment)
Approaches to Curriculum Designing
Types of Curriculum Design Models
1. Subject-Centered Design
This is a curriculum design that focuses on the content of the curriculum. it corresponds mostly to the textbook, because they are usually written based the specific subject/ course. Mostly they use this kind of structure and curriculum design aim of excellence in the specific subject discipline content.
Henry Morrison and William Haris also believed in this curriculum.
Subject Design
The oldest and so far the most familiar design for teachers, parent, and other laymen. Subject design has advantage because it is easy to deliver. The teacher become the dispenser of knowledge and learners are the simply the empty vessel to receive the information from the teacher. This is a traditional approach to teaching and learning.
Discipline Design
Subject design centers only on the clusters of content, discipline focuses on academic disciplines. Discipline refers to specific knowledge learned through a method which the scholars use to study a specific content of their fields.
Correlation Design
Links separate subject designs in order to reduce fragmentation. Subjects are related to one another and still maintain their identity.
Broad Field Design/Interdisciplinary
A variation of the subject-centered design. This design was made to cure the compartmentalization of the separate subjects and integrate the contents that are related to one another.
Also called Holistic Curriculum, broad fields draw around themes and integration. Interdisciplinary design is similar to thematic design, where a specific theme isn identified, and all other subjects areas revolve around the theme.
2. Learned- Centered Design
Among the progressive educational psychologists, the learner is the center of educative process.
Child-centered design
This is anchored on the needs and interests of the child. The learner is not considered a passive individual but engages with his/her environment. Learning is a product of the child’s interaction with the environment.
Experience- centered design
The focuses remains to be the child, experience-centered design believes that the interests and needs of the learners cannot be pre-planned. Learners are made to choose from various activities that the teacher provides. The learners are empowered to shape their own learning from the different opportunities given by the teacher.
Humanistic design
in humanistic curriculum design, the development of self is the ultimate objective of learning. It stresses the whole person and the integration of thinking, feeling and doing. It considers the cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains to be interconnected and must be addressed in the curriculum. It stresses the development of positive self-concept and interpersonal skills.
3. Problem-Centered Design
Draws on social problems, needs, interests an abilities of the learners. Various problems are given emphasis. This curriculum, content cuts across subject boundaries and must be based on the needs, concerns and abilities of the students.
Life-situation design
It makes the design unique is that the contents are organize in ways that allow students to clearly view problem areas. It uses the past and the present experiences of learners as a means to analyse the basic areas of living.
Core problem design
It centers on general education and the problems are based on the common human activities. The central focus of the core design includes common needs, problems, and concerns of the learners.
Popularized by Fuance and Bossing in a curriculum. these are the steps
Make group consensus on important problems.
Develop Criteria for selection of important problem.
State and define the problem
Decide on areas of the study. Including class grouping.
List the needed information for resources.
Obtain and organize information.
Analyze and interpret the information.
State the tentative conclusions.
Present a report to the class individually or by group.
Evaluate the conclusion.
Explore the avenues for further problem solving.
Approaches to Curriculum Design
How will a particular teacher design be approached by the teacher? After writing a curriculum based on the specific design let us see how the teacher will approach these.
Child or Leaner-Centered Approach
This approach to curriculum design is based on the underlying philosophy that the child or the learner is the center of the educational process.
Principles of Child-Centered Curriculum Approach
Acknowledge and respect the fundamental rights of the child.
Make all activities revolve around the overall development of the learner.
Consider the uniqueness of every learner in a multicultural classroom.
Consider differentiated instruction or teaching.
Provide a motivating supportive learning environment for all the learner.
Subject-Centered Approach
This is anchored on a curriculum design which prescribe separate distinct for every educational level.
Principles of Subject-Centered Approach
The primary focus is the subject matter.
The emphasis is on bits and pieces of information which may detached from life.
The subject matter serves as a means of identifying problems of living.
Learning means accumulations of content, or knowledge.
Teacher’s role is to dispense the content.
Problem-Centered Approach
The learners are capable of directing and guiding themselves in the resolving problems, thus developing every learner to be independent.
The learners are prepared to assume their civic responsibilities through direct participation in different activities
The curriculum leads the learners in the recognition of concerns and problems in seeking solutions. Learners are problem solves themselves.
Curriculum Mapping
Is a process or procedure that follows curriculum designing. This process was introduced by Heidi Hayes Jacob in 2004 . This approach is an ongoing process or “work-in-process”. It can be done by teachers alone, a group of teachers teaching the same subject, the department, the whole school or district or the whole educational system.
Curriculum Mapping Process
There are many ways of doing things, according to what outcome one needs to produce. This also true with curriculum mapping.
Example A
a component of an OBE –inspired syllabus for the higher education. However, this can be modified for basic education to serve specific purpose as you will see in some maps.
The Curriculum Map
Curriculum maps are visual timelines that outline desired learning outcome to achieved, contents, skills and values taught, instructional time, assessment to be used, and overall student movement towards the attainment of the intended outcomes.
Curriculum maps provide quality control of what are taught in schools to maintain excellence, efficiency and effectiveness.
Parents, teachers and whole educational community can look at the curriculum map to see that intended outcome and content are covered. A map can reassure stakeholders specific information for pacing, and alignment of the subject horizontally or vertically. It will also avoid redundancy, inconsistencies and misalignment.
Horizontal alignments, called sometimes as “pacing guide”, will make teachers, teaching the same timeline and accomplishing the same learning outcomes.
A curriculum map is always a work in progress that enables the teacher or the curriculum review team to create and recreate the curriculum. It provides a good information for modification of curriculum, changing of standards and competencies in order to find ways to build connections in the elements of the curricula.
CHAPTER 3
Implementing the Curriculum
Curriculum Implementation defined
Curriculum Implementation
This is the phase where teacher action takes place. It is one of the most crucial process in curriculum development although many educational planners would say “a good plan is work have done”.
Curriculum implementing means putting into practice written curriculum that has been designed in syllabi, course of study, curricular guides, and subjects. It is a process wherein learners acquire the planned or intended knowledge, skills, and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learners to function effectively in society (SADC MOE AFRICA, ZOO)
Ornstein and Hunkins in 1998 defined curriculum implementation as the interaction between the curriculum that has been written and planned and the persons (teacher) who are in charge to deliver it. To them, curriculum implementation implies the following:
Shift from what is current to a new or enhanced curriculum.
Change knowledge, actions, attitudes of the persons involved.
Change in behaviour using new strategies and resources.
Change which requires efforts hence goals should be achievable.
Loucks and Lieberman (1983) define curriculum implementation as the trying out of a new practice and what it looks like when actually used in a school system. It simply means that implementation should bring the desired change and improvement.
In a larger scale curriculum implementation means putting the curriculum into operation with the different implementing agents. Takes place in a class, school, a district, a division, or the whole educational system. It requires time, money, personal interaction, personal contacts, and support.
Curriculum Implementation as a Change Process
Kurt Levin’s Force Field Theory and Curriculum Change
Kurt Levin (1951), the father of social psychology explains the process of change and implementation.
There are always two forces that oppose each other. These are the driving force and the restraining force.
Based on Kevin’s Force Field Model
Categories of Curriculum Change
McNeil in 1990 categorized curriculum changes as follows:
Substitution. The current curriculum will be replaced or substituted by a new one. Sometimes, we call this a complete overhaul. Example, changing an old book to entirely new one not merely a revision.
Alteration. In alternation, there is a minor change to the current curriculum.
Restructuring. Building a new structure would mean major change or modification in the school system, degree program or educational system.
Perturbation. These are changes that are disruptive, but teachers have to adjust to them within a fairly short time.
Value Orientation. To McNeil, this is a type of curriculum change. Perhaps this classification will respond to shift in the emphasis that the teacher provides which are not within the mission or vision of the school or vice versa.
3 Elements
Developmental –the sense that it should develop multiple perspectives, increase integration and make learning autonomous, create a climate of openness and trust, and appreciate and affirm strengths of the teacher.
Participatory-For curriculum implementation to succeed, it should be participatory, specially because other stakeholders like peers, school leaders, parents and curriculum specialist are necessary. Characteristics of teacher styles, commitment, willingness to change, skills, and readiness are critical to implementation. This should be coupled with organizational structure, principal style, student population characteristics and other factors.
Supportive-curriculum implementation is required in the process of change. Material support like supplies, equipment and conductive learning environment like classrooms and laboratory should be made available. They too have to train to understand how to address curriculum change as part of their instructional as well as management functions.
Implementing a Curriculum Daily in the Classrooms
Starting the Class Right: Laying Down the Curriculum Plan
Intended Learning outcomes (ILO).these are the desired learning that will be the focus of the lesson. Learning outcomes are based on Taxonomy of Objectives presented to us as cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy; A Quick Look
There are three major changes in the revised taxonomy. These are:
Changing the names in the six categories from nouns to verbs.
Rearranging these categories.
Establishing the levels of the knowledge level in the original version
Higher Order Thinking Skills
HOT
doing
ACTIVE
Receiving and participating
Visual Receiving
Passive
Verbal Receiving
Lower Order Thinking Skills LOTS
Levels of Knowledge
Factual Knowledge-ideas, specific data or information
Conceptual knowledge-words or ideas known by common name, common features, multiple specific examples which may either be concrete or abstract. Concepts are facts that interrelate with each other to function together.
Procedural knowledge-how things work, step-by-step actions, methods if inquiry.
Metacognitive knowledge-knowledge of cognition in general, awareness of knowledge of one’s own cognition, thinking about thinking.
Intended learning outcomes (ILO) should be written in a SMART way. Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Result Oriented (Outcomes) and Time Bound.
Subject Matter or Content. (SM) come from a body of knowledge (facts, concepts, procedure and metacognition) that will be learned through the guidance of the teacher.
Procedure or Method and Strategies. This is the crux of curriculum implementation. How a teacher will put life to the intended outcomes and the subject matter to be used depends on this component.
Here are some points to remember
There are many ways of teaching for the kinds of learners. Corpuz and Salandanan, (2013) enumerated the following approaches and methods, which may be useful for the different kinds of learners. Some are time tested methods, while others are non-conventional constructivist methods.
Direct Demonstration Methods: Guided Exploratory/Discovery Approach Inquiry Method, Problem-based Learning (PBL), Project method.
Cooperative Learning Approaches: Peer Tutoring, Learning Action Cells, Think-Pair-share
Deductive or Inductive Approaches: Project Method, Inquiry-Based Learning,
Other approaches: Blended Learning, Reflective Teaching, Integrated Learning, Outcomes-Based approach
Students have different learning styles. There are many classifications of learning styles according to the different authors. The Multiple Intelligence Theory of Howard Garner implies several learning styles, but for our lessons, we will focus on the three learning styles which are Visual, Auditory and Kinesthetic. These three preferred styles can help teachers choose the method and the materials they will use.
Teaching and learning must be supported by instructional material (IMs)
Considering the teaching methodologies and the learning styles, the different support materials should be varied. This will ensure that the individual differences will be considered.
Instructional materials should complement Visual, Auditory and Tactile or a combination of the three. However, following Dale’s Cone of Learning which visual device, can help teachers to make decision on what resource and materials will maximize learning.
Cone of Learning
After 2 weeks
We tend to remember Nature of involvement
Methods and materials must implement the plan: Taking action
Lesson Plan in Science
I. Objectives/Intended Learning outcomes
Subject Matter
Procedure
Preparatory Activity
1. Review of Prior Learning/Past Lesson
B. Lesson proper
Motivation
Pre-laboratory activities
Laboratory activity
Post-Laboratory Activity
Conceptualization
Application
IV. Assessment of Learning outcomes
Finding out what has been achieved: Assessing achieved outcomes
At the end of the activity, the teacher will find out if the intended learning outcomes (ILO) have been converted into achieved learning outcomes (ALO).
The Role of Technology in Delivering the Curriculum
Referred to as media technology or learning technology, or simply technology. Technology plays role in delivering instruction to learners.
Technology offers various tools of learning and these range from non-projected media from which the teacher can choose, depending on what he sees fit with the intended instructional setting.
Stakeholders in Curriculum Implementation
Curriculum Stakeholders
1. Learners are at the core of the curriculum
The old views that students are mere recipients of the curriculum, is now changing. The degree of their involvement is dependent on their maturity.
2. Teachers are Curricularist
Who plan, design, teach, implement and evaluate the curriculum. The most important person in curriculum implementation. Teachers influence upon learners cannot be measured. Better teacher fosters better learning.
3. School leaders are curriculum managers.
Principals and school heads, too, have important roles in curriculum implementation process in school. Communication line should be open to all concerned school leaders lead in curriculum teamwork. Convincing the parents on the merits of the new curriculum is the job of the school heads.
4. Parents
Parents are significant school partners. Parents may not directly be involved in curriculum implementation, but they are formidable partners for the success of any curriculum development endeavour.
5. Community as the Curriculum Resources and a Learning Environment
“It takes the whole village to educate the child” goes the statement of former First Lady Hillary Clinton.
6. Other Stakeholder in Curriculum Implementation and Development
Government Agencies
DepED, TESDA, CHED
Personal Regulation Commission (PRC) and Civil Service Commission (CSC)
Local Government Units (LGU)
Non- Government Agencies
Gawad Kalinga (GK)
Synergia
Metrobank Foundation
Professional Organization (like Philippine Association Teachers and Educators (PAFTE), State Universities an College Teacher Educators Association (SUCTEA)).
Chapter 4
Evaluating the Curriculum
Curriculum Evaluation: A Process and a Tool
The analysis of the various definitions reveals that evaluation is both a process and a tool, where the results of the evaluation will be the basis to Improve curriculum. As a process it follows a procedures based on models and frameworks to get to the desired results. As a tool, it will help the teachers and program implementers to judge the worth and merit of the program and innovation or curricular change.
Reasons for Curriculum Evaluation
Curriculum evaluation identifies the strengths and weakness of an existing curriculum that will be basis of the intended plan, design.
When evaluation is done in the middle of the curriculum development, it well tell if the designed or implemented curriculum can produce.
Provides information necessary for teachers, school managers, curriculum specialist for policy recommendations that will enhance achieved learning outcomes.
Important processes were evolve such as :
Needs assessment
Monitoring
Terminal assessment
Decision making
Curriculum Evaluation Models
Bradley Effectiveness Model
In 1985, L.h. Bradley wrote a hand book on curriculum Leadership and development. This book provides indicators that can help measure the effectiveness of a developed or written curriculum. For purposes of the classroom teachers, some of the statements were simplified.
Tyler Objective Centered Model
Ralph Tyler in 1950 proposed a curriculum evaluation model which until now continues to influence many curriculum assessment processes. His monograph was entitled Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.
Daniel Stufflebeam’s Context, Input, Process Product Model (CIPP)
The CIPP Model of Curriculum evaluation was a product of the Phi Delta Kappa committee chaired by Daniel Stufflebeam
The Stages of Program Operation
Context Evaluation- Assesses need and problems in the context for decision makers.
Input Evaluation- assesses alternative means based on the inputs for the achievement of the objectives to help decision makers to choose options for optimal means.
Process Evaluation- monitors the processes both to ensure the means are actually being implemented and make necessary modification.
Product Evaluation- compares actual ends with intended ends and leads to a series of recycling decisions.
Stake Responsive Model
Responsive model is oriented means directly to program activities the program intents. Evaluation focuses more in activities rather than intent or purposes.
Scriven Consumer Oriented Evaluation
Michael Scriven, in 1967 introduce this evaluation. Consumers of educational products which are needed to support an implemented curriculum often use consumer-oriented evaluation.
Consumer-oriented evaluation uses criteria and checklist as a toll for either formative or summative evaluation purposes.
A simple Way of Curriculum Evaluation Process
For a very simple and practical way of curriculum evaluation, responding to the
following questions will provide an evaluation data for curriculum decision.
Curriculum Evaluation Through Learning Assessment
Achieved Learning Outcomes
Is defined in outcomes –based education as a product of what have been intended in the beginning of the learning process. Indicators of the learning outcomes which are accomplished are called achieved learning outcomes.
Our country has established the Philippine Qualification Framework (PQF) as a standard which will be aligned to the ASEAN reference Qualification Framework (ARQF) for the comparability of the learning outcomes at the different levels of education ladder. PQF is shown in the diagram below:
The eight levels of complexity of learning outcomes are based on three domains.
Knowledge, Skills, and Values
Application
Responsibility- degree of independence
Knowledge, Process, Understanding, Performance (KPUP)- Levels of Learning Outcomes
Knowledge, Process, Understanding, Performance reflect different learning outcomes that are arranged in hierarchy or complexity.
Types of Test to Measure Knowledge, Process and Understanding
Objective Tests.
Requires only one and one correct answer. It is difficult to construct but easy to check.
Pencil-and-Paper Test
As the name suggests, the test is written on paper and requires a pencil to write. In the modern times, a pencil and paper can also be translated to an electronic version, which makes the test “paperless”
Simple Recall
The most common tool to measure knowledge. There are varieties of simple recall test, to include:
Fill in the Blanks
Enumeration
Identification
Simple Recall
Alternative Response Test
This is the type of pencil and pencil test, where two options or choices are provided. The items can be stated in a question or statement form
Multiple Choice Test
Identified as the most versatile test type because it can measure a variety of learning outcomes. It consists of a problem and a list of suggested solutions
Matching Type Test
Is made up of two columns. This test is useful in measuring factual information as well as relationships between two things, ideas or concepts.
Perfect Matching Type
The number of premises in Column A is less than the number of responses in Column B. The response can only be used once.
Imperfect Matching Type
The number of premises in Column A is not equal to the number of responses in Column B, or the other way around. The response can only be used once.
Subjective Test
Learning outcomes which indicate learner’s ability to originate, and express ideas is difficult to test through objective test.
Essay
Test items allow students freedom of response. Students are free to select, relate and present ideas their own words.
Types of Essay
Restricted Response Item
This is like expanded form of short answer type objective test. It is most useful in measuring learning outcomes that require the interpretation and application of data in a specific area.
Extended Response Item
The student is generally free to select any factual information that can help in organizing in response.
Performance Assessment Tools
Checklist a tool that consists of a list of qualities that are expected to be observed as present or absent.
Rating Scale is a tool uses a scale in number lines as a basis to estimate the numerical value of a performance or a product.
Rubrics for Portfolio a portfolio is a compilation of the experiences as authentic learning outcomes presented with evidence and reflections.
Levels of Assessment for the Levels of Learning Outcomes
Describe levels of the learning outcomes which are: 1) Knowledge, 2) Process or Skills, 3) Understanding, 4) Products or Performance
Placing Value to the Assessment Results from KPUP
The four levels may be employed in the formative assessment but the result is not recorded. It will just tell how the students are progressing.
The interval scale of computed four levels learning outcomes is given Level of Proficiency Description. This interpretation is used for all the learning areas or subjects in basic education.
Placing Value to the Assessment Results in the New Grading System DePED Order 8, s. 2015
The KPUP is still utilized in the new grading system, it is important to know that DePED Order 8, has modified the grading system as follows:
Grades at the End of the Quarter or Grading Period
Kindergarten: use of checklist, anecdotal records and portfolios are used instead of numerical grades which are based on Kindergarten Curriculum Guides.
Grade 1 to 12
Learners are graded on three components of quarter: Written work, Performance Task, Quarterly Tests.
These components are given specific weights that vary.
How are Grades computed at the end of the School Year
For Kindergarten: Checklist, anecdotal records and portfolios are presented to the parents at the quarter for discussion.
For Grade 1 to 12:
The average of the quarter grades produces the end of the year grade.
The general average is computed by dividing the sum of all final grades by the total number of learning areas.
For Grade 11 to 12:
The average of the quarterly Grade produces the semestral grade.
The General Average is computed by dividing the sum of all Semestral Final Grades by The Total Number of Learning Areas.
Reporting Summative Grade by Quarter and Summative Grade at the End of the Year
This modifies the previous description of the performance in the KPUP. The values and descriptions are reported to parents every quarter and at the end of the year.
Grading Scale
Planning, Implementing and Evaluating: Understanding the Connections
The Evaluation Cycle: The Connections
Planning, Implementing and Assessing are three processes in curriculum development that are taken separately but are connected to each other. The cycle continues as each is imbedded in a dynamic change that happens in curriculum development.
Key Idea: Planning is an initial step in curriculum development.
Planning is an initial process in curriculum development. It includes determining the needs through an assessment. Needs would include those of the learners, the teachers, the community and the society as these relate to curriculum.
Intended outcomes should be smart, specific, measureable, attainable, with result, and within the frame of time. After establishing these, then a curricularist should find out in planning the ways of achieving the desired outcomes. These are ways and means, and the strategies to achieve outcomes. Together with the methods and strategies are the identification of support materials. All of these should be written, and should include the means of evaluation.
Key Idea: Implementation continues after planning.
The planned should be implemented. It has to be put into action or used by a curriculum implementor who is the teacher. Curriculum should not remain written documents it’s useless. A curriculum planner must have a full grasp of what is to be done.
The Curriculum implementor must also see to it that the plan which serves as a guide learning is necessary in the curriculum implementation. It is necessary that the end in view or the intended outcomes will be achieved in the implementation.
Key Idea: Evaluation follows implementation.
The focus of this chapter is evaluation after planning, and implementation was done. It is very necessary to find out at this point, if the planned or written curriculum was implemented successfully and the desired learning outcomes were achieved.
These models discussed the previous lesson guide the process and the corresponding tools that will be used to measure outcomes.
Key Idea: What has been planned, should be implemented and what has been implemented should be evaluated.
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