BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
LET Reviewer
Biology Majorship
Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 1)
Systematics
∙ classification of organisms and the evolutionary relationships among them
Taxonomy
∙ study of grouping and classification
Taxon
∙ any named group of organisms that is sufficiently distinct to be assigned to a certain category
Levels of Classification
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
Binomial system of classification
∙ by Carolus Linnaeus
∙ use of Genus and Species
o make up the scientific name
o first letter of the genus is always capitalized, while the species name starts with a small letter. It should be in italics (underlining the genus and species means it is in italics)
Example: Homo sapiens
Mus musculus
Common name
∙ less precise
∙ could refer to more than one organism
Six kingdom scheme
Achaebacteria
∙ prokaryotic (without true nucleus)
∙ extremophiles
∙ no peptidoglycan in the cell wall
∙ classification
Eubacteria
∙ true bacteria
∙ prokaryotic (without true nucleus)
∙ with peptidoglycan in the cell wall
∙ classification (based on shape)
Protista
∙ eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
∙ with plant, animal and fungus like characteristics
∙ unicellular eukaryotes
Fungus like Protists
Animal like Protists
Plant like Protists
Fungi
∙ eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
∙ heterotroph (consumer)
∙ some are saprophytes (consume decaying plants) and some are parasitic
∙ classification
o zygomycetes (common molds)
▪ resistant spherical spores
▪ living in soil or on decaying plant or animal material
▪ example-black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer)
o basidiomycetes (club fungi)
▪ fungi with gills or pores
▪ examples are mushrooms and bracket fungi.
o ascomycetes (sac fungi)
▪ examples of sac fungi include morels, truffles, yeast
o deuteromycetes (imperfect fungi)
▪ have no sexual reproduction
▪ examples Penicillum
Plantae
∙ eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
∙ autotroph (producer)
∙ photosynthetic
Plants
Non vascular
(Bryophytes)
Vascular
Moss
(Bryophyta)
Liverwort (Hepatophyta)
Hornwort
(Anthocerophyta
Seedless
Seeded
Fern allies
Fern
Non Flowering
Flowering
Gymnosperm
Angiosperm
Monocot
Dicot
Animalia
∙ eukaryotic (with true nucleus)
∙ heterotroph (consumer)
Dichotomous key
∙ determines the classification of an organism
Basic needs of plants
∙ solid (although soil less farming called hydroponics can be done)
∙ minerals
Manganese, zinc, iron, boron, copper, nickel, molybdenum and chlorine
Sulfur, phosphorus, carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium and
Magnesium
∙ air (CO2)
∙ water
∙ light
Some benefits of plants
∙ Food
∙ Shelter
∙ Source of oxygen for other organisms
∙ Phytoremediation-help in the breakdown or reduce the concentration of pollutants in the environment
Basic needs of animals
∙ food
∙ water
∙ air (O2)
Some benefits of animals
∙ food
∙ biological regulation
∙ medicinal use
Biological Science 1 (Plant and Animal Biology 2)
Plants
Root
∙ anchorage and absorption
∙ protection, support, reproduction, and storage (by specialized roots)
∙ root systems include taproot, fibrous, and adventitious
o Taproot- composed of the primary secondary and tertiary roots
o Fibrous- of an extensive mass of similarly sized roots
o Adventitious-arise from the other parts of the plant like in the main branches, twigs and leaves
Stem
∙ main support system
∙ composed of the main stem and their branches
∙ can be with lenticels (serve as the breathing organ)
∙ can be with leaf scars and bundle scars
∙ with annual rings (can estimate the age of a tree)
∙ can be specialized (ex tuber, stolon)
Leaf
∙ serves in photosynthesis
∙ with stomata (entry of CO2 and exit of H2O vapor)
∙ can be specialized (ex tendrils, spines)
Flower
∙ reproductive structure
∙ male part is the stamen (pollen)
∙ female part is the carpel (ovary)
∙ develop to become the fruit
Transport
∙ Xylem
o conducts water from roots to leaves
o composed of tracheids and xylem vessels
∙ Phloem
o conducts sugar from leaves to other parts
o composed of sieve tube members and companion cells
Nutrition
∙ by photosynthesis
light
CO2 + H 2O --------------> C6H12O6 + O2
Chlorophyll
∙ may be supplemented by carnivory (usually consumption of insects) like in the Venus fly trap and Pitcher plant
Reproduction
∙ pollination (transfer of pollen to the stigma) followed by fertilization (union of sperm and egg)
∙ has double fertilization
∙ may be sexual (using seeds) or asexual reproduction
∙ life span can be annual, biennial or perennial
Animals
Nutrition
∙ can holotrophic (feeding on solid organic material), saprotrophic (feeding on soluble organic compounds obtained from dead animals and plants) or parasitic (feeding on the organic substances present in the body of another living organism)
∙ some structures for obtaining food are tentacles, claws, teeth, and pinchers
∙ food is taken into the gut or alimentary canal
∙ Food is subjected to chemical and physical digestion then absorbed
Transport
∙ can be water-filled canals (like in jellyfishes) or in circulatory system (like in vertebrates and certain invertebrates)
∙ circulation can be open or closed (blood stays in the vessels)
Gas exchange
∙ can diffuse in the tracheal tubes (like in insects), skin (like coelenterates, flatworms and many annelids), gills (like in fishes), and lungs (like in most vertebrates)
Excretion and Osmoregulation
∙ kidney (like in vertebrates), malphigian tubules (like in insects)
Locomotion
∙ wings (in birds), tails and fins (in fishes and aquatic mammals like dolphin and whales)
Reproduction
∙ may be asexual (no gametes needed)
Fission- divides into two or more equal-sized parts
Budding- outgrowth develops on the parent animal that becomes a new individual
∙ may be sexual (gametes needed)
Behavioral Adaptations
∙ Reflex actions- can happen unconsciously
∙ Learning- adaptive change in behavior due to past experiences
∙ habituation- subjected to repeated stimulation
Principle of Unity in Diversity
∙ All organisms are made up of cells
∙ The continuity of life from generation to generation is explained by the presence of the genetic material.
∙ The complimentarity between structure and function is true to all living forms
∙ Evolutionary change is the key to the diversity of life.
∙ Interaction with the environment
∙ Stability and homeostasis
∙ Reproduction
Complimentarity between Structure and Function
∙ a relationship between the structure and function
∙ example
o cell provided with great number of mitochondria must be a very active cell in terms of energy consumption
Inorganic and Organic Chemistry
Matter
∙ anything that has mass and occupies space
Matter
Pure
Mixture
Element
Compound
Homogenous
Heterogeneous
Atom
∙ tiniest particles of an element
∙ have subatomic particles
o proton-positive
o neutron- neutral
o electron-negative
∙ has atomic number (number of protons)
∙ has atomic mass (number of protons and neutrons)
Isotopes
∙ same atomic number but of different mass number
∙ Example
o Hydrogen-1, Hydrogen-2 and Hydrogen-3
o Carbon -12, Carbon-14
Ion
∙ charged particles
∙ can be cations (positively charged) or anions( negatively charged)
Element
∙ composed of one type of atom that cannot be separated into simpler substances by chemical means.
Molecules
∙ aggregate of at least two atoms in a definite arrangement held together by chemical bonds
Compound
∙ composed of atoms of two or more elements chemically combined in fixed proportions
∙ can be decomposed by chemical means into simpler substances
Mixture
∙ consist of two or more substances wherein their composition varies
∙ May be homogenous (one phase) or heterogenous (multiple phase)
∙ Examples of homogenous mixture
o vinegar
∙ Examples of heterogenous mixture
o Soil
Periodic Table
∙ horizontal rows called period (indicates the number of energy levels)
∙ vertical column called group or family (indicates the number of valence electrons)
∙ element in the periodic table can be metals, metalloids or non metals
Covalent bond
∙ sharing of valence electron
Ionic bond
∙ formed by oppositely charged ions
∙ there is complete transfer of electron from one atom to another
Hydrogen bond (in water)
∙ bond that exist between an atom of a hydrogen in one water molecule and an atom of oxygen in another water molecule
States of matter
∙ Solid
o molecules are closely bound to one another by molecular forces
o holds its shape
o volume of a solid is fixed by the shape of the solid.
∙ Liquid
o molecular forces are weaker than solid
o takes the shape of its container
o can flow
∙ Gas
o molecular forces are very weak.
o take both the shape and the volume of the container
o can flow
Carbon
∙ forms the backbone of biology for all life on Earth.
∙ Complex molecules are made up of carbon bonded with other elements, especially oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen (carbon is able to bond with all of these because of its four valence electrons)
Water
∙ contracts until it reaches 40 C then it expands until it is solid.
∙ Solid water is less dense that liquid water (thus, ice floats)
∙ Can be attracted to other water (cohesion).
∙ can be attracted to other materials (adhesion).
∙ High surface tension
∙ High boiling point
∙ Water has a high specific heat (amount of heat per unit mass required to raise the temperature by one degree Celsius)
Chemical reactions
∙ Synthesis
o A + B 🡪 AB
∙ Decomposition
o CD 🡪 C + D
∙ Single displacement
o EF + G 🡪 EG + F
∙ Double displacement
o IJ +Kl 🡪 IL +KJ
Biochemistry and Cell Biology
Biomolecules
∙ Carbohydrates
o Immediate source of energy
o made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms
o simplest carbohydrate formula of CH2O
o Can be classified as monosaccharide, disaccharide and polysaccharide
o Examples of monosaccharide
▪ Fructose-fruit sugar
▪ Glucose
▪ Galactose
o Examples of disaccharide
▪ Maltose (glucose + glucose)-for making beer
▪ Sucrose (glucose + fructose)-table sugar
▪ Lactose (glucose + galactose)-milk sugar
o Examples of polysaccharide
▪ Glycogen-storage carbohydrate of animals
▪ Starch-storage carbohydrate of plants
▪ Cellulose-for protection
▪ Chitin- polysaccharide found in the outer skeleton of insects, crabs, shrimps, lobsters and cell wall of fungi
∙ Proteins
o Building blocks are amino acids
▪ Amino acids may be essential (can not be synthesized by the body)
⮚ phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, leucine, and lysine
(Any Help) In Learning These Little Molecules Proves Truly Valuable
▪ Amino acids may be non essential (can be synthesized by the body)
⮚ Alanine, Asparagine, Aspartate, Cysteine, Glutamate, Glutamine, Glycine, Proline, Serine, Tyrosine, Arginine, Histidine
▪ Individuals living with phenylketonuria (PKU) must keep their intake of phenylalanine extremely low to prevent mental retardation and other metabolic complications. However, phenylalanine is the precursor for tyrosine synthesis. Without phenylalanine, tyrosine cannot be made and so tyrosine becomes essential in the diet of PKU patients.
o Special proteins that hastens chemical reaction is called enzymes
o Protein deficiency leads to a disease called kwashiorkor (characterized by edema, irritability, anorexia, ulcerating dermatoses, and an enlarged liver)
∙ Lipids
o Huge storage of energy
o Can be phospholipid, fats, waxes, oils, steroids
▪ Fats-glycerol + 3 fatty acids
⮚ unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature
⮚ unsaturated fats can be made saturated by adding hydrogen atoms (hydrogenation)
⮚ saturated fats are solid at room temperature
⮚ Consumption of large amount of saturated fats has been associated with atherosclerosis. (plaques are deposited on the walls of blood vessel reducing blood flow)
▪ Waxes
⮚ fatty acid linked to alcohol
⮚ more hydrophobic and serve as natural coats
⮚ covers of fruits and leaves of plants that appear shiny
⮚ Some insects have waxy coats that prevent then from drying out.
▪ Phospholipid
⮚ important in cellular membranes
⮚ Two fatty acids are linked to glycerol. A phosphate group is attached to the glycerol
▪ Steroid
⮚ example is cholesterol
⮚ The backbone is not an alcohol but a four-ring hydrocarbon
∙ Nucleic acids
o Storage of information
o Transmit parental traits to offspring
o Building blocks are called nucleotide (sugar + nitrogenous base +phosphate group)
o Can be DNA or RNA
Robert Hooke
∙ discovered the cell
Theodor Schwann (zoologist) and Matthias Jakob Schleiden (botanist)
∙ stated that cells were the basic unit of life.
Rudolf Virchow
∙ stated tat cells come from pre-existing cells
Cell theory
∙ Cells are the basic unit of life
∙ All organisms are composed of cells. Every living thing is either single-celled or multi-celled.
∙ all cells arise from pre-existing cells (Except for the origin of life itself).
Prokaryote
∙ No true nucleus
∙ With nucleoid region
Eukaryote
∙ With true nucleus
Cellular structures
∙ Cell membrane
o For protection
o Explained by the fluid mosaic model
▪ Phospholipid is bilayer interspersed with proteins
▪ Fluid because component move throughout the membrane
▪ mosaic because of integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoproteins, phospholipids, glycolipids, and in some cases cholesterol, lipoproteins.
∙ Mitochondrion
o Production of ATP
o Enclosed by the inner membrane is a jelly-like matrix.
o folds are called cristae
o has its own DNA
∙ Chloroplast
o pigment-containing
o has of small flattened sacs called thylakoids
▪ thylakoids are arranged in stacks called granum
o has its own DNA
∙ Ribosome
o Make proteins
o May be attached (in rough endoplasmic reticulum) or free
∙ Endoplasmic Reticulum
o May be Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER)
▪ Contain ribosomes
▪ For protein synthesis
▪ Flattened
o May be Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER)
▪ No ribosomes
▪ For lipid synthesis and detoxification
▪ Tubular
∙ Golgi Apparatus
o modifies and packages materials
∙ Vacuole
o Surrounded by tonoplast
o For storage and osmotic regulation
∙ Lysosome
o For intracellular digestion
o Contain digestive enzymes
o Suicide bag of the cell
o May destroy cellular debris, pathogenic bacteria and fungi.
∙ Microtubules
o provides structural support and allows motion
o has protein subunits called tubulin.
∙ Nucleus
o Control center of the cell because of the presence of genetic material
o Surrounded by the nuclear membrane
∙ Flagellum/Cilia
o Has 9+2 microtubular arrangement
o For movement
∙ Centrioles
o Has 9+0 microtubular arrangement
o For cellular division
∙ Nucleolus
o Assembles rRNA
Plant and animal cell
Transport
∙ Passive
o Does not use ATP (the energy currency of the cell)
o Movement is through the concentration gradient (from high concentration to low concentration)
o Examples
▪ Diffusion
⮚ movement of particles (atoms, ions or molecules) from a region in which they are in higher concentration to regions of lower concentration. It continues until the concentration of substances is uniform
⮚ Applications
❖ Gas exchange for respiration
❖ Gas exchange for photosynthesis
▪ Facilitated diffusion
⮚ movement of specific molecules down a concentration gradient, using a carrier protein
▪ Osmosis
⮚ Diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane
⮚ Water movement in
❖ Hypotonic environment-net water movement is going inside; animal cell burst; plant cell turgid (no bursting because of presence of cell wall)
❖ Hypertonic environment-net water movement is leaving the cell; cell plasmolyzed (shrink)
❖ Isotonic environment-water entering and exiting the cell is the same; cell remains the same in shape
⮚ Applications
❖ Absorption of water by plant roots
❖ Re-absorption of water by the proximal and distal convoluted tubules of the nephron (basic unit of the kidney)
❖ Absorption of water by the alimentary canal
∙ Active
o Uses ATP
o Movement is against the concentration gradient (from low concentration to high concentration)
o Example
▪ Sodium potassium pump
∙ Bulk transport
o Endocytosis-cell membrane folds to ingest particles
▪ Phagocytosis-‘eating’
▪ Pinocytosis-‘drinking’
o Exocytosis-release of materials from the cell; very important in waste disposal
Cell division
Interphase
∙ G1- The cell increases in size
∙ S- DNA is synthesized
∙ G2- significant protein being synthesized
*G0-non dividing phase
Through Mitosis
∙ Happens in somatic cells (all cells except the sex cells)
∙ Daughter cells are the same with the parent cells
∙ Some importance of mitosis
o Healing of wound
o Replace of worn out tissue
o Replacement of skin cells
∙ has four phases
Through Meiosis
∙ Happens in sex cells
∙ Daughter cells have half of the genetic materials (haploid cell) of the parent cells
∙ Some importance of meiosis
o Restore diploid state of parent cell
o Production of sperm and egg cells
∙ Has two divisions (First division is called reductional phase; Second division is called equational phase)
Cytokinesis
∙ cytoplasm divides to form two daughter cells
∙ happens after telophase
Cancer
∙ cells have uncontrolled mitosis resulting to uncontrolled growth
∙ division beyond the normal limits
∙ may spread to other parts of the body (metastasis)
Genetics and Evolution
Genetics
∙ study of heredity
o Heredity is the transmission of genes from one generation to the next generation
Gregor Mendel
∙ Father of Genetics
∙ used the garden pea (Pisum sativum)
∙ Results of Experiment
o First generation- purebred tall plants were crossed with purebred short plants all the offspring were tall plants.
o Second generation- tall plants, which were the progeny of the first generation, were crossed with themselves 75% or ¾ of the resulting progeny were tall plants and 25% or ¼ of the plants were short
∙ Mendelian Laws of Genetics
o Mendel Law of Dominance
▪ When recessive genes are with the dominant genes , the dominant genes are the ones expressed
o Law of Segregation
▪ states that all the genes for all the traits of an organism are equally divided and are equally distributed in all the resulting gametes after meiosis
o Law of Independent Assortment
▪ states that alleles of different genes are distributed randomly to the gametes and fertilization occurs at random
Non Mendelian Patterns of inheritance
∙ Incomplete Dominance
o states that a cross between homozygous dominant and recessive genes will result to a progeny of heterozygous genes determining an intermediate trait between the dominant trait and recessive trait
o Example-Red and white flowers produce pink flowers
∙ Co-dominance
o Detectable genetic expression of two alleles
o Example-Blood group
∙ Multiple Allelism
o A given gene can have more than two (2) alleles
o Can only be studied in populations
o Example-ABO blood group; Bombay phenotype (a person with antigens for blood type A, B or AB has Blood type O)
∙ Sex Link
o gene responsible for a specific trait is located on a sex chromosome
o Example- Color blindness and hemophilia in humans
∙ Sex limited
o The phenotype is the same in a specific gender regardless of the genotype
o Example
∙ Sex influenced
o Heterozygous genotype may exhibit one phenotype one sex and the contrasting one on the other
o Example
Chromosome Theory of Inheritance
∙ Mendelian factors or genes are located on chromosomes
∙ It is the chromosome that segregates and independently assort
∙ Mendelian inheritance has its physical basis on the behavior of chromosomes during sexual life cycles. (In the early 1900s, geneticists showed that chromosomal movements in meiosis account for Mendel’s laws.)
∙ Morgan traced a gene to a specific chromosome which led to the discovery that the X chromosome in Drosophila carries a gene for eye color. This supported the chromosome theory of inheritance
Mutation
∙ change in genes or chromosomes, which causes a new trait to be inherited
∙ may be inheritable (change occurs in the sex cells) or non heritable (change occurs in the somatic cells) mutations
∙ may be negative (cause of sickness like sickle cell anemia) or positive (cause desirable traits like superior intelligence) mutation
∙ possible causes (mutagen)
o radiation (x-rays, ultraviolet rays, cosmic rays and radioactive substances)
o chemical (formaldehyde, benzene)
∙ Types
o Single gene disorders
▪ information contained in the particular gene is either changed or absent
o Chromosome Abnormalities or Chromosomal aberrations
▪ Changes in number
▪ Changes in structure
o Mitochondrial disorders
▪ genes in the mitochondria (egg contains most of the mitochondrial cells) is altered
o Multifactorial disorders
▪ caused by a combination of genetic changes and environmental factors
DNA replication
∙ Unzipping
o DNA unwinds
o Use the enzyme helicase to unzip
∙ Complementary base pairing
o nucleotides match with place by complementary bases
▪ A binds with T and vice versa
▪ G binds with C and vice versa
∙ Joining of adjacent nucleotides
o The joining of the sugar/phosphate parts of adjacent nucleotide molecules causes the length of the new DNA molecule to increase
Protein Synthesis
∙ Transcription
o Unzipping or Initiation
o Complementary base pairing
▪ A pairs with U
▪ T pairs with A
▪ G pairs with C and vice versa
o Joining of adjacent nucleotides
∙ Translation
o mRNA codons are read in the ribosomes.
o ends with the production of proteins.
o tRNA carries the amino acids to the ribosome; tRNA anticodons match with the codons
Regulation of Gene Expression
∙ in prokaryotes, control of transcriptional initiation is the major point of regulation
∙ in eukaryotes the regulation of gene expression is controlled nearly equivalently from many different points
Applications of Genetics
∙ Genetic Engineering
∙ Animal Cloning
∙ Plant Cloning
∙ DNA Fingerprinting
∙ Creation of Monoclonal Antibodies
∙ Tissue Engineering
Benefits of Biotechnology
In Agriculture:
∙ Improved crop varieties and animals in terms of quality traits, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses
∙ Enhanced crop protections thru diagnostics & biodrugs for plant and animal diseases.
∙ Plants have also been engineered to produce hormones, clotting factors and antibodies
∙ Biotechnology has helped to increase crop productivity by introducing such qualities as disease resistance and increased drought tolerance to the crops
In Medicine
∙ Production of pharmaceutical products like hormones (insulin), vaccines, interferons, complements, important proteins like the anti-clotting factor.
∙ In pharmacogenomics (study of how the genetic inheritance of an individual affects his/her body’s response to drugs.)
∙ Biotechnology lead to development of tailor-made medicines and more accurate methods of determining appropriate drug dosages, improvements in the drug discovery and approval process, safer vaccines can be designed and produced by organisms transformed by means of genetic engineering.
∙ Gene therapy may be used for treating, or even curing, genetic and acquired diseases like cancer and AIDS by using normal genes to supplement or replace defective genes or to bolster a normal function such as immunity.
In Environmental Protection and Rehabilitation
∙ When genetic engineering results in reduced pesticide dependence, it leads to less pesticide residues on foods, reduced pesticide leaching into groundwater, and minimize farm worker exposure to hazardous products.
∙ Creation of genetically modified microbes to clean the environment or for bioremediation
∙ Genome-based global studies open a new era providing unprecedented in silico views of metabolic and regulatory networks, as well as clues to the evolution of degradation pathways and to the molecular adaptation strategies to changing environmental conditions
Evolution
∙ gradual change of structure and function of organisms due to the changes in the environment
∙ descent with modification
Evidences for Evolution
∙ Fossils
o Remains of one existing organisms
∙ Chemical and anatomical similarities
o the more similar the structures are, the more related they are
∙ Geographic distribution
o major isolated land areas and island groups often evolved their own distinct plant and animal communities.
∙ Recorded genetic changes in living organisms over many generations
o the more similar the genes are, the more related they are
Microbiology and Biotechniques
Toxins
∙ Exotoxins
o toxins secreted by a pathogen
o proteins in nature
o Example
▪ Clostridium botulinum releases exotoxin causing paralysis
∙ Endotoxins
o part of some bacterial cell wall
o lipopolysaccharide (lipid and carbohydrate) in nature
o Example
▪ Salmonella typhi releases endotoxin causing typhoid fever
Bioremediation
∙ process of cleaning contaminants in the environment using living organisms.
∙ Bacteria are efficient organisms for this purpose
Probiotics
∙ food supplements using bacteria or fungi
∙ Lactobacilli is a common probiotic ingredient
Virus
∙ means poison in ancient Rome
∙ characterized by the presence of capsid (protein coat covering the nucleic acid)
∙ Multiplication
o attachment
▪ virus locates a specific binding site on the recipient host cell.
o penetration
▪ genetic materials or the whole virus enters the cell
o replication and synthesis
▪ the genetic component of the virus dictates to the host cell to reproduce materials needed by the virus for reproduction
o assembly
▪ viral materials are structured to become new viruses
o release
▪ new viruses are liberated from the host cell
∙ Pathways to achieve the process of multiplication of virus
o lytic cycle
▪ all steps in multiplication (see above) are immediately and successively done.
o lysogenic cycle
▪ the incorporated viral genetic material does not immediately produce the needed material.
▪ genetic materials stay incorporated in the genetic make up of the host cell until triggered to produce materials needed for virus assembly.
∙ Classification
∙ Bacteriophage
o group of virus that infects bacterial cell
Herbarium
∙ collection of plant specimens which are dried, arranged and classified
∙ serves as basis of identifying plants in succeeding collection
Aquarium
∙ miniature water ecosystem
Terrarium
∙ miniature terrestrial ecosystem
Taxidermy
∙ art of preserving the skins of different animals for study or exhibition
∙ provides realistic visual aid in teaching concepts in animals like Integumentary system and habitat.
Microscopic techniques (microtechniques)
∙ prepare materials for microscopic observation and study
∙ Some steps
∙ Some methods
o Teasing
▪ parts are dissociated by a solution then separated by fine needles
▪ example
⮚ striated muscle fibers preparation
o Smear
▪ spreads the specimen on the slide
▪ example
⮚ blood
o grinding
▪ hard tissues are treated then thinned using abrasives. Bone tissues (cross section) are prepared using this means.
o Squashing
▪ done by gently crushing the specimen to loosen the aggregation
▪ example
⮚ Onion root tips showing the chromosome
Culture media
∙ any material designed for growth of microorganisms
∙ Microbes placed in the culture medium are called inoculum.
∙ microbes growing from this setup are called culture.
∙ agar is the most commonly used
o characteristics of agar
▪ few microbes can degrade it making it in solid form
▪ liquefies at 1000C and remains liquid until about 400C
▪ may be used in petri dish or test tube
Hay infusion
∙ usually used in studying protists
o Steps in making
▪ add hay (grass) in pond water.
▪ drop glucose (to start growth of bacteria, the food of protists)
▪ set aside for a few days to allow proliferation of protists
Human Anatomy and Physiology
Levels of organization
Atom
Molecule
Biomolecule
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
Integumentary system
∙ protection from harmful elements of the environment
∙ prevents dehydration
∙ synthesizes Vitamin D precursors
∙ regulates body temperature
∙ components
o skin
▪ Epidermis layer
⮚ stratum corneum
❖ composed mainly of dead cells
❖ keratin is found on this layer
⮚ stratum granulosum
❖ plays a big role in keratinization
❖ granular in appearance
⮚ stratum spinosum
❖ spiny in appearance
⮚ stratum basale/germinativum
❖ site of active mitotic activity
▪ Dermis layer
⮚ Next layer after epidermis
⮚ Contain sebaceous gland (secretes sebum/oil) and sweat gland (secrete sweat)
⮚ arrector pili (contract resulting to goose bumps) muscle present
▪ Hypodermis layer
⮚ also known as the subcutaneous layer hair
⮚ adipose tissues present
o hair
▪ parts
⮚ shaft
❖ protrudes over the epidermis
❖ made up of dead cells
⮚ hair follicle
❖ capable of mitosis
o nails
▪ for protection
▪ for grasping objects
▪ for scratching.
∙ Some diseases
o Acne
▪ inflammation of the hair follicles and sebaceous glands.
▪ common areas affected are the face, chest, back and sometimes the scalp
o Dermatitis
▪ Irritation of the integument
Muscular system
∙ give shape
∙ provides movement
∙ gives posture
∙ capable of heat production
o Types of Muscles
▪ Skeletal- striated, multi-nucleated, voluntary movement
▪ Cardiac- striated, uni-nucleated, involuntary movement
▪ Smooth/visceral -non- striated, uni-nucleated, involuntary movement, spindle shape
∙ Some disease
o Muscular dystrophy
▪ disintegration and degeneration of muscle fibers
o Myasthenia gravis
▪ autoimmune disease
▪ too little acetylcholine reaching the neuromuscular junction causing severe exhaustion and muscle fatigue
Skeletal system
∙ for framework and protection
∙ storage of calcium
∙ production of blood cells
∙ compose of cartilage (tough but elastic) and bone
∙ division
o Axial
▪ Comprises of the skull, thorax and the vertebral column
o Appendicular
▪ Constitutes the shoulder girdle, upper extremities, pelvic girdle and the lower extremities
∙ Types of joints
o Ball and socket-exemplified by the shoulders
o Gliding- exemplified by the carpals (wrist)
o Hinge- exemplified by the elbow
o Pivot-exemplified by the neck
∙ Some diseases
o Scoliosis
▪ lateral curvature of the spine
o Osteoporosis
▪ bones of become brittle and porous due to decrease in calcium and phosphorous
Nervous system
∙ for transmission of nerve impulses throughout the body
Nervous System
Central Nervous system
Peripheral Nervous system
Somatic nervous system (voluntary)
Autonomic nervous system (involuntary)
Sympathetic
(control organs in times of stress)
Parasympathetic
(control organs in times of rest
Central Nervous system
∙ compose of the brain and the spinal cord
∙ component of the brain
o Cerebrum
▪ Seat of consciousness
o Cerebellum
▪ body movements
o Diencephalon
▪ Composed of thalamus and the hypothalamus(seat of emotion)
▪ control body temperature, thirst, hunger and even sexual urges
o Brainstem
▪ Composed of midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata
▪ responsible for respiration, breathing, heart beat, regulation of blood flow and blood pressure
Peripheral nervous system
∙ serves as a receiving site of nerve impulse transmission coming to and from the brain and spinal cord
Some Diseases of the Nervous System
∙ Bell’s Palsy
o paralysis of the facial muscles
o loses of the ability to close the eye on the affected side along with muscle weakness, loss of taste and facial deformity.
∙ Alzheimer’s Disease
o progressive memory loss and deterioration of intellectual capacity.
o Results from a decrease in acetylcholine receptors, smoking, alcoholism, infection and heredity
∙ Parkinson’s disease
o Muscular rigidity, resting tremor, general lack of movement
o Results from deficiency or absence of dopamine
Circulatory system
Blood
∙ composed of plasma (made up of water, proteins, electrolytes, and other substances) and formed elements (blood cells)
Blood cells
∙ erythrocyte
o red blood cell
o carrier of oxygen and carbon dioxide
∙ leukocyte
o for protection against invading organisms
o may be granular (neutrophil, eosinophil, and basophil) or non granular (lymphocyte and monocyte)
∙ Thrombocyte
o Platelets
o For initiation of blood clotting
Blood vessels
∙ Artery
o carries blood away from the heart
o usually carries oxygenated blood (exception is the pulmonary artery)
∙ Vein
o carries blood towards the heart
o usually carries deoxygenated blood (exception is the pulmonary vein)
∙ capillary
o site of exchange of materials
Heart
∙ 4 chambers
o 2 receiving atria
o 2 pumping (blood away from the )ventricles
o Contraction initiated by Sinoatrial node (SA node or pacemaker)
Diseases of the Circulatory System
∙ Arteriosclerosis
o hardening large arteries
∙ Atherosclerosis
o lipid deposits in the arteries
Respiratory system
∙ for exchange of gases
∙ parts include nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
o Nose
▪ For prewarming or air
▪ Filtration of air
o Pharynx
▪ Common pathway of food, water and air
o Larynx
▪ Voice box
▪ Opens and closes the larynx
o Trachea
▪ With C-shape cartilage
▪ With cilia (for filtration)
o Bronchi
▪ Pathway of air
o Bronchioles
▪ Smaller than bronchi
o Alveoli
▪ Site of exchange of gases
Diseases of the Respiratory System
∙ Tuberculosis
o Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
o Signs and symptoms include as fever, night sweats, fatigue and coughing with
∙ Pneumonia
o Inflammation of the lungs
Immune system
∙ for protection
∙ types
o innate (non specific; exemplified by inflammation, phagocytosis, chemical mediators) or adaptive (specific; exemplified by antibody formation)
o active (antibody produced by the body in response to an antigen) or passive (actual antibody is transferred to the person)
o Natural (natural exposure) or artificial (with human intervention like vaccination)
Diseases of the Immune System
∙ AIDS (Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome)
o Caused by Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)
▪ attacks helper T cell (functions in signaling other immune cells to fight antigens)
o could be acquired by an exchange of body fluids during sexual intercourse from an infected individual, blood transfusion, sharing of needles, tattooing, body piercing
o attacks helper T cell (functions in signaling other immune cells to fight antigens)
Endocrine system
∙ Secretes hormones
∙ Some examples
Diseases/disorder of the Endocrine System
∙ Diabetes
o insufficient production of insulin
∙ Dwarfism
o insufficient production of growth hormone
Digestive system
∙ breakdown and assimilation of food
∙ parts
o Mouth
▪ breaks down the food into smaller pieces with the help of the teeth (incisors, canine, premolar and molar) and tongue
o Pharynx
▪ Common passage of food, water and air
o Stomach
▪ Temporary storage of food
▪ Highly acidic
o Small intestine
▪ Complete digestion occurs
▪ Receives secretion of pancreas and liver
o Large intestine
▪ Reabsorption of water
▪ production of some vitamins by help of microorganism
o Anus
▪ Exit of feces
∙ Accessory glands
o Liver
▪ Produce bile (emulsifies fats)
o Gall bladder
▪ Stores bile
o Pancreas
▪ Secrete enzymes for digestion
Peristalsis
∙ Rhythmic contraction of gastrointestinal tract to propel food downward
Diseases/Disorder of the Digestive System
∙ Appendicitis
▪ Inflammation of appendix
▪ needs appendectomy (removal of appendix)
Urinary system
∙ elimination of waste (urine)
∙ parts
o kidney
▪ nephron is the basic unit
o Ureter
▪ propel urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
o Urinary bladder
▪ Temporary storage of urine
o Urethra
▪ connects the urinary bladder to the outside of the body
∙ Process of Urine Formation
o Filtration
▪ waste products are further eliminated in the form of Glomerular filtrate which enters the Bowman’s capsule
o Reabsorption
▪ allows necessary nutrients and substances to be absorbed by the blood while eliminating ammonia, urea and other waste products
o Secretion
▪ urine is already formed in this final process
Diseases/Disorder of the Human Excretory System
∙ Urinary Tract Infection (UTI)
o inflammation to any of the parts of the urinary tract
o females have shorter urethra compared to males making them more susceptible to infection
Reproductive system
∙ for perpetuation of species
∙ male parts
o Scrotum
▪ enclosing the testes
▪ for thermoregulation.
o Testes
▪ Produce sperms (in seminiferous tubules)
▪ give rise to male secondary sexual characteristics.
o Epididymis
▪ Place where sperm mature.
o Vas deferens
▪ duct where sperms pass through
o Seminal Vesicles
▪ secretes sugar, protein, and other substances that nourish the sperm.
o Ejaculatory duct
▪ results from the fusion of the seminal vesicle and the vas deferens
o Prostate gland
▪ secretes an alkaline fluid neutralizing the vagina from its acidic condition.
o Bulbourethral glands
▪ pea-sized structure situated below the prostate gland
▪ helps lubricate the penis during intercourse
∙ female parts
o Ovaries
▪ secretes the hormones estrogen and progesterone
▪ production of egg
o Fallopian Tubes
▪ Also called oviducts
▪ serves as a passageway egg cell
▪ site of fertilization (ampulla)
o Uterus
▪ Place of the fetus for growth and development.
o Vagina
▪ receives the erected penis
▪ provides a passageway for the fetus to be delivered during the process of labor.
o Vulva
▪ part of the vagina located externally. Incorporated in this area are pairs of lip-like structures known as the labia. The outer portion is the labia majora and the inner is the labia minora.
o Mammary glands
▪ milk production
Diseases/Disorder of the Reproductive System
∙ Gonorrhea
o yellowish discharge accompanied by an inflammation of the urethra
o difficulty and pain while urinating, pelvic pain and fever
o caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae
∙ Syphilis
o infection penetrates the mucosal linings of the reproductive tracts causing ulcerations
o signs and symptoms such as skin rashes, alopecia, fever and body aches
o may reach the brain resulting to a mental illness and paralysis that could possibly lead to death
o caused by Treponema pallidum
Fundamentals of Physics
System
∙ collection of parts confined in a specific boundary
∙ Ecosystem, the major unit in ecology is an example of a system
∙ May be an open (may acquire inputs from the environment; ecosystem is an example ) or a closed system (No input can pass through the boundary of the system)
Thermodynamics
∙ study of collective effects of heat, work and energy in a system.
∙ First Law of Thermodynamics
o law of conservation of energy
o energy is not created nor destroyed but simply converted to another form
o Example
▪ the light energy of the sun is converted by the plants into chemical energy. When humans walk using the chemical energy, then the chemical energy is converted to mechanical energy.
∙ Second Law of Thermodynamics
o that heat flows spontaneously from a higher temperature material to a lower temperature material
o can also be viewed in terms of entropy (conversion of matter and energy to a more random or disorganized state)
o example
▪ Between winter and spring, ice melts. This means that ice accepts heat making it in a more disorganized state (since liquid molecules have more freedom of movement)
Heat transfer
∙ can be through conduction, convection and radiation. These can be differentiated with the media used.
∙ Conduction
o Materials which conduct heat well are called thermal conductors (example is wood)
o Materials that do not conduct well are called thermal insulators
o Example
▪ A lizard resting on its belly on the soil is losing heat in a sunny day by conduction
∙ Convection
o When fluids are heated, they expand. This results to increase in volume and a subsequent decrease in density. On the other hand, when fluids area cooled they decrease in volume and the density increases.
o fluid flowing with it is called the convection current.
o Example
▪ dispersing pollutants in cities
▪ In lakes or oceans, valuable nutrients settling at the bottom can not be accessed by phototrophic organisms above unless the bottom waters move up. This is achieved when there is a turnover, convection current.
∙ Radiation
o Example
▪ During forest fires, trunks acquires heat form burning materials through radiation
▪ Lemurs with white fur are able reflect light to the surrounding. During cold mornings, they allow their small black skin on their belly towards the sun. This captures more heat for warming up
Ecology
∙ Study of the interaction of organisms to their environment
Physical factors in the environment
∙ Temperature
∙ Light
∙ Water
∙ Wind.
∙ Air
Relationships
∙ Mutualism
o both members are benefited
o Example
▪ Flower and insect
∙ Commensalism
o One benefits (commensal) while the other is not affected (host)
o Example
▪ Epiphytes (like orchids) and tall trees
∙ Parasitism
o One is benefited (parasite) and the other is harmed (host)
o Classification of parasite
▪ Ectoparasite
∙ Parasite lives outside the host (like mosquito)
▪ Endo parasite
∙ Parasite lives inside the host (like intestinal worms)
∙ Competition
o May impart limiting effects on both members
o may be Interspecific (competing organisms belong to different species) intraspecific (competing organisms belong to the same species) competitions
∙ Predation
o One is benefited (predator) and the other is harmed (prey)
o Example
▪ Snake (predator) and mouse (prey)
Niche
∙ role or status of the organism in the community or ecosystem
∙ this can be through participation in the transfer of energy, recycling of materials, shaping communities
Habitat
∙ place where an organism lives
Food chain
∙ series of eating and be eaten
∙ example
o rice plant🡪mouse🡪snake-decomposer
Food web
∙ composed of different food chains
Food pyramid
∙ shows the energy transferred to each trophic level
∙ producers occupy the base of the pyramid
∙ final consumers at the tip
∙ follows the rule of 10 (energy transfer from one trophic level to the next is about 10%.)
Biomes
∙ Tundra
o in polar region
o Limited plant growth
o little precipitation
o with permafrost (permanently frozen soil)
∙ Taiga
o also called boreal or coniferous forest
o found in cool, elevated areas
o with tall conifers with needle-like leaves
∙ Temperate deciduous forest
o With deciduous trees (leaves change color together with the season, and shed in winter)
∙ Tropical Forest
o Climate here is mild, as summer remains warm and winter is cold
o Strata include canopy, understorey and floor
∙ Savanna
o grasslands with few shrubs and trees
o site of safari
∙ Grasslands
o Abundant with grass
∙ Desert
o least amount of precipitation
o always dry but NOT always hot
Aquatic ecosystem
∙ Freshwater
o River
o Lake
∙ Marine (salt) water
o Sea
o Ocean
Succession
∙ change in the species structure of an ecological community over time
∙ may be primary succession (takes place on an area that is originally completely empty of life) or secondary succession (occurs in an area where life once existed but has then been destroyed)
Natural ecosystem
∙ present in the environment that receives no human intervention
∙ example
o forest
Managed ecosystem
∙ receives no human intervention
∙ example
o aquarium
o terrarium
Effects of natural disturbances
∙ flood
∙ species are endangered (very few species remaining)
∙ extinction (elimination) of species
Statistics for Biology
Graphs
∙ representation of a set of objects where some pairs of the objects are connected by links
∙ Types
o Line
▪ plotted peaks and dips on the grid allow you to monitor and compare improvement and decline
o Bar
▪ data in a simple format consisting of rectangular bars
o Histogram
▪ displays the data by using vertical bars of various heights to represent the frequencies
o Pie
▪ data comparison, consisting of a circle that is split into parts
o Pictographs
▪ use small picture symbols to compare information
o Scatter Plot
▪ effective way in illustrating the relationship between two measures
Frequency
∙ number of times the event occurred
Ratio
∙ comparison of two numbers
∙ Example
o 8:12
o 8/12
Proportion
∙ statement that two ratios are equal
∙ Example
o 3/4 = 6/8
o 2/4=1/2
Probability
∙ belief that an event will occur or has occurred
Central tendencies
∙ needs to be able to understand summaries of large amounts of data that use simple measures to best represent the location of the data as a whole.
∙ measures of central tendency
o Mean
▪ arithmetic mean
▪ simply the average of the group
▪ Example
⮚ Mean of 13, 14 and 15 is 14 (13+14+15= 42; 42⌯ 3 = 14)
o Median
▪ middle score or the midpoint of the data
▪ Median is a better description than the mean of the majority when the distribution is skewed
▪ Example
⮚ Median of 11, 13, 15, 21,and 45 is 15 (numbers are arranged in increasing/decreasing order; there are 5 numbers, thus the midpoint is the 3rd number which is 15)
⮚ Median of 11, 13, 15, 21, 25 and 45 is 18 (numbers are arranged in increasing/decreasing order; there are 6 numbers, the midpoint is between the 3rd and 4th numbers; thus 15+21 =36; 36⌯2=18)
o Mode
▪ most frequent score
▪ Example
⮚ Mode of 2, 2, 3, 5 and 6 is 2
Correlation
∙ describes the degree of relationship between two variables
∙
History and Philosophy of Science
∙ Prehistoric Times
o Stone Age: Paleolithic Age(3000-1000 BC & Neolithic Age (9000-5000 BC)
▪ Stones
⮚ Used for chopping, cutting or digging
▪ Fire
⮚ Used to warm their body and cook their food
▪ Containers of food
▪ Cooking of food using fire
o Bronze Age 3500(3500-2500 BC)
▪ Creation of the First Alloy
▪ Bronze- combination of copper and tin
∙ Ancient Civilization (3500 BC- A>D> 1200)
o Sumerian Civilization -Sumer, is the cradle of the world’s earliest known civilization
▪ Standardized Measurement following the sexagesimal system (using number 60 as base). They divided the circle into 360 degrees, an hour into 60 minutes and a minute into 60 seconds)
▪ Canals, dikes, wires and reservoirs
▪ Potter’s Wheel
▪ Wheeled Vehicle
▪ Sailboat
▪ Systematized Farming
▪ Irrigation system –constructed canals for irrigation
▪ Bleaching, dyeing, preparing paints, cosmetics and perfumes
▪ Materia Medica- Compilation of prescriptions for different diseases made from assorted botanical, zoological, and mineralogical ingredients.
▪ First writing system called cuneiform which is a set of word pictures depicted in symbols pressed into wet clay tablets and then sun dried
o Babylonian Civilization
▪ Hanging Gardens of Babylon
▪ Sun Dial
▪ Calendar
▪ Developed an elaborate irrigation system of canals
o Egyptian Civilization
▪ Hieroglyphics
▪ Papyrus- first paper
▪ Early weather forecasting
▪ Astronomy
▪ Production of Bread and Beer
▪ Henna
▪ Embalming
▪ Metallurgy
o Minoan/ Cretan Civilization
▪ Drainage System
o Greek Civilization
▪ Logical Thinking
▪ Astronomy
▪ Atomic Theory
▪ First Classification of Living things
▪ First accurate measurement of the earth’s diameter
▪ Archimedes Screw
▪ Dissection of Animal corpses
▪ Geometry
o Persian Civilization
▪ Common Calendar
▪ Postal service
▪ Uniform system of gold and silver coinage
o Roman Civilization
▪ Installation of public toilets
▪ Adapted Greek teachings
o Arabic/ Islamic Civilization
▪ Alchemy
▪ Numerical System
▪ Glass lens for magnification
▪ Produced the first gun
o Chinese Civilization
▪ Lacquer
▪ Silk Production
▪ Records on eclipses
▪ Apothecaries and acupuncture
▪ Paper Making
▪ Gun Powder
▪ Printing
o Indus-Hindu Civilization
▪ Developed metallurgy
▪ Accuracy in measurement
▪ Prevention and treatment of ailments
o The Middle Ages
▪ Algebra was organized and expanded
▪ Comprehensive medical encyclopedia-Canon of Medicine
▪ Introduction of the Hindu Arabic system
o The Renaissance
▪ Improved process of paper making and printing
▪ Scientific method
▪ Microscope
▪ Age of exploration
Hand Outs for Special Education – LET REVIEW
What Is Special About Special Education?
Special education is governed by federal law in most educational jurisdictions. Under Indviduals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Special Education is defined as:
"Specially designed instruction, at no cost to parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability."
Special education is in place to provide additional services, support, programs, specialized placements or environments to ensure that all students' educational needs are provided for. Special education is provided to qualifying students at no cost to the parents. There are many students who have special learning needs and these needs are addressed through special education. The range of special education support will vary based on need and educational jurisdictions. Each country, state or educational jurisdiction will have different policies, rules, regulations and legislation that governs what special education is. In the US, the governing law is:
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA)
Typically, the types of exceptionalities/disabilities will be clearly identified in the jurisdiction's law surrounding special education. Students qualifying for special education support have needs that will often require support that goes beyond what is normally offered or received in the regular school/classroom setting.
The 13 categories under IDEA include:
∙ Autism
∙ Other Health Impairments
∙ Specific Learning Disabilities
∙ Speech and Language Impairments
∙ Visual Impairments.
Gifted and talented are viewed as exceptional under IDEA, however, other jurisdictions may also included Gifted in part of their legislation. Some of the needs in the above categories cannot always be met through regular instructional and assessment practices. The goal of special education is to ensure that these students can take part in education and access the curriculum whenever possible. Ideally, all students need to have equitable access to education in order to reach their potential.
A child suspected of needing special education support will usually be referred to the special education committee at the school. Parents, teachers or both can make referrals for special education. Parents should have any necessary information/documentation from community professionals, doctors, external agencies etc. and inform the school of the child's disabilities if they are known prior to attending school. Otherwise, typically the teacher will being to notice anomalies and will relay any concerns to the parent which can lead to a special needs committee meeting at the school level. The child who is being considered for special education services will often receive assessment(s), evaluations or psycho testing (again this depends on the educational jurisdiction) to determine if they qualify to receive special education programming/supports. However, prior to conducting any type of assessment/testing, the parent will need to sign consent forms.
Once the child qualifies for additional support, an Individual Education Plan/Program (IEP)is then developed for the child. IEPs will include goals, objectives, activities and any additional supports needed to ensure the child reaches his/her maximum educational potential. More on IEPS. The IEP is then reviewed and revised regularly with input from the stakeholders.
BEHAVIOR MODIFICATION
DEFINITION OF TERMS
1. Baseline: Process by which information is collected regarding the occurrence of the behavior prior to any intervention.
2. Behavior: Any overt or covert activity of a person. *also:response*
3. Chaining: Method of teaching a complex behavior involving the systematic teaching of component skills of the behavior andsequencing the skills together.
4. Consequences: The non ambiguous reaction to whatever behavior is exhibited by the learner. *also: Positive reinforcement,punishment*
5. DRI: Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior. Reinforcement contingent on emission of behavior incompatiblewith the target behavior.
6. DRL: Differential reinforcement of lower rates of behavior. Reinforcement contingent upon low-rate responses.
7. DRO: Differential reinforcement of other behavior. Procedure in which reinforcement follows any behavior emitted except target behavior.
8. Extinction: Removal of all reinforcement contingent on target behavior.
9. Generalization: Phenomenon by which behavior taught in onestimulus situation tends to be emitted in other stimulus situations.
10. Negative Reinforcement: (SR ) Removal of stimulus which,when removed contingent on response increases the likelihood of future occurrence of the response. * Also consequence,contingency*
11. Overcorrection: Reductive procedure requiring restitution of previous environment and positive practice in order to decrease the occurrence of the target behavior.
12. Positive Reinforcement: (SR ) Presentation of a stimuluscontingent on a response which results in the strengthening of
that response. also: consequence, contingency'
13. Premack Principle: The use of a high-rate behavior toincrease the occurrence of a low-rate of behavior. *also:positive reinforcement, consequence, contingency:
14. Prompt: Additional information given to facilitate theprobability of a correct response.
15. Punishment: The contingent presentation of a stimulus orevent which results in a future weakening of response rate,duration, or intensity. also: contingency, consequence
16. Response Cost: Response-contingent withdrawal of a specified amount of reinforce. also: consequence, contingency:
17. SD (Discriminative Stimulus: Stimulus which signals thatreinforcement is available contingent upon the emission of acertain response. also: antecedent, command, instruction
18. Shaping: Method of teaching a complex behavior involving the reinforcement of successive approximations to the target behavior.
19. Stimulus Control: When behavior is situation or person specific, it is said to be under stimulus control.
20. Time Out: Removal of access to all sources of reinforcement for a specified time period contingent upon the target behavior. *also: consequence, punishment, contingency
21. Token Economy: Artificial reinforcers given in a specificnumber upon emission of target behavior to be later used to"purchase" reinforcement. also: positive reinforcement, consequence, contingency*
AUTISM
What causes Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)? How do ASD affect the learning and behaviour of persons with the disorder?
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders-Fourth Edition IV (DSM-IV, 1994), the maindiagnostic reference of mental health professionals, places ASD under the diagnostic umbrella category of Pervasive Developmental Disorders (PDD). PDD includes autism and four other related developmentaldisorders: Asperger’s Syndrome, Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, Rett’s, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder–Not Otherwise Specified. Important aspects to keep in mind about ASD include:
• ASD affect the neurodevelopment system, which results in distinct learning and behavioral
characteristics.
• ASD have an underlying biological/genetic cause that produces organic and/or physical changesduring brain development, which result in atypical cognitive and social development and behaviors.
• ASD affect individuals uniquely, although individuals will exhibit many of the characteristic behaviors
in varying degrees throughout their lifetime.
• ASD do not result from poor parenting.
• ASD impact more than behavior.
• ASD affect the individual’s ability to integrate sensory information and regulate their emotions.
What deficits form the basis for a diagnosis of an ASD?
The DSM-IV provides five deficit areas to consider as diagnostic criteria for identifying individuals
with ASD:
• Communication
• Socialization/Social skills
• Restricted interests
• Sensory integration
• Behavior
Each of these deficit areas will be discussed in greater detail later in this guide. Any education personnelworking with people with ASD must remember that these individuals always exhibit varying degrees of difficulties in these five areas. Students with ASD exhibit varying combinations of and degrees of difficultyin each area, which makes ASD look different across student populations.
Do all students with ASD exhibit the same early symptoms?
Yes. Recent research has shown that students with ASD exhibit four early indicators. These include:
• Lack of eye contact
• Lack of joint attention (i.e., attention to the same item or topic as another person)
• Lack of reciprocal conversation (i.e., ability to engage in verbal turn taking)
• Atypical sensory/motor processing
In addition, people with ASD exhibit core deficits of varying degrees and combinations in the following
areas:
• Difficulty with identifying important global concepts and elements of tasks (which differentiates
ASD from Attenton Deficit Disorder/Attention Deficit with Hyperactivity Disorder);
• Difficulty processing auditory information—understanding, retaining, and retrieving;
• Difficulty generalizing skills—skills must be taught in context;
• Difficulty with sequencing information or steps in a task;
• Difficulty transitioning between different activities;
• Difficulty with time concepts and time management;
• Atypical and/or uneven academic, social, or emotional development (e.g., high functioning in
some academic areas, low functioning in others).
ATTENTION DEFICIT WITH HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER
Symptoms of ADHD
Some symptoms of ADHD are described as inattention, difficulty in performing tasks, hyperactivity and impulsivity. According to the DSM IV (DSM4) Criteria for ADHD.
A. Either (1) or (2)
(1). 6 (or more) of the following symptoms of inattention have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level:
(a) often fails to give close attention to details or makes careless mistakes in schoolwork, work, or other activities
(b) often has difficulty sustaining attention in tasks or play activities
(c) often does not seem to listen when spoken to directly
(d) often does not follow through on instructions and fails to finish schoolwork, chores, or duties in the workplace (not due to oppositional behaviour or failure to understand instructions)
(e) often has difficulty organising tasks and activities
(f) often avoids, dislikes, or is reluctant to engage in tasks that require sustained mental effort (such as schoolwork or homework).
(g) often loses things necessary for tasks or activities (e.g. toys, school assignments, pencils, books, or tools)
(h) is often easily distracted by extraneous stimuli
(i) is often forgetful in daily activities
(2) 6 (or more) of the following symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity have persisted for at least 6 months to a degree that is maladaptive and inconsistent with developmental level
(a) often fidgets with hands or feet or squirms in seat
(b) often leaves seat in classroom or in other situations in which remaining seated is expected
(c) often runs about or climbs excessively in situations in which it is inappropriate (in adolescents or adults, may be limited to subjective feelings of restlessness)
(d) often has difficulty playing or engaging in leisure activities quietly
(e) is often "on the go" or often acts as if "driven by a motor"
(f) often talks excessively
(g) often blurts out answers before questions have been completed
(h) often has difficulty awaiting turn
(i) often interrupts or intrudes on others (e.g. butts into conversations or games)
B. Some hyperactive-impulsive or inattentive symptoms that caused impairment were present before age 7 years.
C. Some impairment from the symptoms is present in two or more settings (e.g. at school [or work] and at home).
D. There must be clear evidence of clinically significant impairment in social, academic, or occupational functioning.
E. The symptoms do not occur exclusively during the course of a Pervasive Developmental Disorder, Schizophrenia, or other Psychotic Disorder and are not better accounted for by another mental disorder (e.g. Mood Disorder, Anxiety Disorder, Dissociative Disorder, or a Personality Disorder)
What Is Visual Impairment
The term visual impairments describes a wide variety of conditions that affect vision abilities. We use the term to denote mild to most severe vision loss, rather than to defects in the eye itself. According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1997, a visual impairment refers to “an impairment in vision that, even with correction, adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes both partial sight and blindness.”
Sight impairment terminology can sometimes be confusing. Most people classified as “blind” have a visual sense of lightness or darkness, as well as an ability to see some shapes and images. To avoid confusion, you should know the following terms commonly used to designate degrees of visual impairment:
∙ Totally blind. This term usually implies little or no visual sensitivity to light at any level. This condition is rare, and people who are totally blind typically have severe physical damage to the eyes themselves or to the visual nerves.
∙ Legally blind. A legally blind person has a visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye, after correction. This means that what an individual with normal (20/20) vision sees at two hundred feet, the legally blind person cannot see until he or she is within twenty feet. In addition, a person can be classified as legally blind if she has a field of vision no greater than twenty degrees at the widest diameter. (A normal field of vision is close to 180 degrees.) Only about 20 percent of legally blind people are totally blind. Legally blind individuals typically use Braille and visual aids.
∙ Low vision. People with low vision can read with the help of large-print reading materials and magnifying objects. They may also use Braille.
∙ Partially sighted. Partially sighted individuals have less severe loss of vision than people in the other three categories. A person with partial sight may be able to see objects up close or far away and with corrective lenses may be able to function at normal levels.
The human eye is like a camera that collects, focuses, and transmits light through a lens to create an image of its surroundings. In a camera, the image is created on film or an image sensor. In the eye, the image is created on the retina, a thin layer of light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye.Like a camera, the human eye controls the amount of light that enters the eye. The iris (the colored circular part of the eye) controls the amount of light passing through the pupil. It closes up the pupil in bright light and opens it wider in dim light. The cornea is the transparent, protective surface of the eye. It helps focus light, as does the lens, which sits just behind the iris.
When light enters the eye, the retina changes the light into nerve signals. The retina then sends these signals along the optic nerve (a cable of more than 1,000,000 nerve fibers) to the brain. Without a retina, the eye can't communicate with the brain, making vision impossible.Many people have some type of visual problem at some point in their lives. Some can no longer see objects far away. Others have problems reading small print. These types of conditions are often easily treated with eyeglasses or contact lenses.But when one or more parts of the eye or brain that are needed to process images become diseased or damaged, severe or total loss of vision can occur. In these cases, vision can't be fully restored with medical treatment, surgery, or corrective lenses like glasses or contacts.The American Foundation for the Blind estimates that 10 million people in the United States are visually impaired. Visual impairment is a term experts use to describe any kind of vision loss, whether it's someone who cannot see at all or someone who has partial vision loss.Some people are completely blind, but many others have what's called legal blindness. They haven't lost their sight completely but have lost enough vision that they'd have to stand 20 feet from an object to see it as well as someone with perfect vision could from 200 feet away.
Causes Visual Impairment
Some babies have congenital blindness, which means they are visually impaired at birth. Congenital blindness can be caused by a number of things — it can be inherited, for instance, or caused by an infection (like German measles) that's transmitted from the mother to the developing fetus during pregnancy.
Conditions that may cause vision loss after birth include:
∙ Amblyopia (pronounced: am-blee-oh-pee-uh) is reduced vision in an eye caused by lack of use of that eye in early childhood. Some conditions cause a child's eyes to send different messages to the brain (for example, one eye might focus better than the other). The brain may then turn off or suppress images from the weaker eye and vision from that eye then stops developing normally. This is also known as a "lazy eye." Strabismus (misaligned or crossed eyes) is a common cause of amblyopia, since the brain will start to ignore messages sent by one of the misaligned eyes.
∙ Cataracts are cloudy areas in part or all of the lens of the eye. In people without cataracts, the lens is crystal clear and allows light to pass through and focus on the retina. Cataracts prevent light from easily passing through the lens, and this causes loss of vision. Cataracts often form slowly and usually affect people in their 60s and 70s, but sometimes babies are born with congenital cataracts. Symptoms include double vision, cloudy or blurry vision, difficulty seeing in poorly lit spaces, and colors that seem faded.
∙ Diabetic retinopathy (pronounced: reh-ton-ah-pa-thee) occurs when the tiny blood vessels in the retina are damaged due to diabetes. People with retinopathy may not have any problems seeing at first. But if the condition gets worse, they can become blind. Teens who have diabetes should be sure to get regular eye exams because there are no early warning signs for this condition. To help prevent retinopathy, people with diabetes should also avoid smoking, keep their blood pressure under control, and keep their blood sugar at an even level.
∙ Glaucoma is an increase in pressure inside the eye. The increased pressure impairs vision by damaging the optic nerve. Glaucoma is mostly seen in older adults, although babies may be born with the condition and children and teens can sometimes develop it as well.
∙ Macular degeneration (pronounced: mah-kyoo-lur dih-jeh-nuh-ray-shun) is a gradual and progressive deterioration of the macula, the most sensitive region of the retina. The condition leads to progressive loss of central vision (the ability to see fine details directly in front). Macular degeneration is often age related (it occurs in older people, especially older than 60), but sometimes it can occur in younger people. Excessive exposure to sunlight and smoking can increase the risk for age-related macular degeneration. Symptoms may include increased difficulty reading or watching TV, or distorted vision in which straight lines appear wavy or objects look larger or smaller than normal.
∙ Trachoma (pronounced: truh-ko-muh) occurs when a very contagious microorganism called Chlamydia trachomatis causes inflammation in the eye. It's often found in poor rural countries that have overcrowded living conditions and limited access to water and sanitation. Blindness due to trachoma has been virtually eliminated from the USA.
If you, your parent, or your doctor suspects a visual problem, you'll probably pay a visit to an ophthalmologist (pronounced: af-thal-mah-luh-jist), a medical doctor who specializes in examining, diagnosing, and treating eyes and eye diseases. When someone goes for an examination, the ophthalmologist will look at the structure of that person's eye.
Other simple tests an ophthalmologist may perform include:
∙ Visual acuity test. A person reads an eye chart to measure how well he or she sees at various distances.
∙ Visual field test. Ophthalmologists use this test to measure side, or peripheral, vision.
∙ Tonometry test. This test determines the fluid pressure inside the eye to evaluate for glaucoma.
If your doctor determines that you have an eye condition that is likely to cause visual impairment, many treatments are available. Options may include eyeglasses, contact lenses, and eye drops or other medicines. In some cases, surgery may be required. For instance, cataracts are often treated by removing the clouded lens and replacing it with an intraocular lens (an artificial plastic lens that requires no special care and restores vision).Other methods can compensate for vision loss. Guide dogs can help people get from place to place independently. Braille allows those with visual impairment to read and write. Special equipment such as microscopic and telescopic glasses and voice-recognition software can make school and homework easier.
LEARNING DISABILITIES
What is Dyscalculia?
Dyscalculia is a learning disability that affects the success that a person has with mathematical calculations. This learning disability cannot be officially diagnosed at present, but it can obvious from several distinct symptoms, such as the inability to visualize abstract mathematical concepts and the tendency to reverse numbers when doing calculations.
Visualization Strategies
There are several strategies you can use to help a student with dyscalculia with visualizing mathematical concepts. For example, you can encourage students to draw diagrams of problems before solving them. You can also help students connect what they are learning to real-life situations. Both of these strategies can help students to make a concept more “real” in their minds. In addition, students with dyscalculia can often benefit from being able to talk out math problems in groups before solving them.
Sequencing Strategies
Students who have issues with number reversals and other sequencing problems can also benefit from some dyscalculia strategies. For example, you might encourage students with dyscalculia to do their calculations on graph paper or on a computer, which can help them to keep the numbers in the correct order. If you have room on a worksheet or exam for students to do their calculations, make sure that you leave plenty of white space for their work. In addition, ensure that your worksheets are straightforward and uncluttered. What looks like a cute worksheet to some students can look like a convoluted mess to a student with dyscalculia.
Other Strategies
Other dyscalculia strategies can help not just students who actually have dyscalculia, but also other struggling students. When students have to memorize facts or concepts, encourage them to put the information to a tune or rhythm. Alternatively, show them how to make up mnemonics or other hints to help them remember the information. In addition, give students a preview of the information you will be teaching before you begin instruction. This will help students prepare mentally for the information they will be learning.
Characteristics and Background Information for Students with Multiple Disabilities:
Children with multiple disabilities will have a combination of various disabilities that may include: speech, physical mobility, learning, mental retardation, visual, hearing, brain injury and possibly others. Along with multiple disabilities, they can also exhibit sensory losses and behavior and or social problems. Children with multiple disabilities - also referred to as multiple exceptionalities will vary in severity and characteristics. These students may exhibit weakness in auditory processing and have speech limitations. Physical mobility will often be an area of need. These students may have difficulty attaining and remembering skills and or transferring these skills from one situation to another. Support is usually needed beyond the confines of the classroom. There are often medical implications with some of the more severe multiple disabilities which could include students with cerebral palsy and severe autism and brain injuries. There are many educational implications for these students.
Strategies and Modifications:
What can you do?
∙ Early intervention is necessary - as soon as the child begins school
∙ Involvement of the appropriate professionals, i.e., occupational therapists, speech/language therapists, physio therapists, etc.
∙ A team approach at the school level involving external agency/community liaison who meet on a regular basis is essential
∙ The physical arrangement of the classroom will need to best accommodate this child. Consideration of special equipment and assistive technology is essential.
∙ Integration among their peers is important to assist these students with social development. It's important to integrate multiply disabled children as much as is possible. Research does indicate that when these students attend their community school and participate in the same activities as their peers is social skills develop and are enhanced. (Sometimes these students are place full time in a regular classroom with support, however, in the majority of cases, these students are place in a developmental skills type of classroom with some integration.
∙ Ensuring that all students demonstrates respect for the multiply disabled student becomes a teacher responsibility and needs to be taken seriously with ongoing activities that develop respect from the other students in the class.
∙ An Individual Education Plan will need to be carefully planned out and adjusted on a regular basis and will need to be aligned to the child.
∙ Remember, these children are often completely dependent upon others for most/all of their daily needs.
∙ Assistive technologies may assist this child and the support team will need to decide which assistive technologies will be most appropriate. (In the IDEA act: ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY. Consider whether the child requires assistive technology devices and services. A safety plan will need to be developed and is often included in the IEP.
∙ Care needs to be given in your expectations of this student to ensure the child doesn't not become frustrated.
Most importantly, these identified children are to be given the same rights as non-identified school age children including screening, evaluation and an appropriate program and services.
Dual Exceptionalities
Gifted and Disabled
ifted students with disabling conditions remain a major group of underserved and understimulated youth (Cline, 1999). The focus on accommodations for their disabilities may preclude the recognition and development of their cognitive abilities. It is not unexpected, then, to find a significant discrepancy between the measured academic potential of these students and their actual performance in the classroom (Whitmore & Maker, 1985). In order for these children to reach their potential, it is imperative that their intellectual strengths be recognized and nurtured, at the same time as their disability is accommodated appropriately.
ASSESSMENT
Identification of giftedness in students who are disabled is problematic. The customary identification methods -- standardized tests and observational checklists -- are inadequate, without major modification. Standard lists of characteristics of gifted students may be inadequate for unmasking hidden potential in children who have disabilities. Children whose hearing is impaired, for example, cannot respond to oral directions, and they may also lack the vocabulary which reflects the complexity of their thoughts. Children whose speech or language is impaired cannot respond to tests requiring verbal responses. Children whose vision is impaired may be unable to respond to certain performance measures, and although their vocabulary may be quite advanced, they may not understand the full meaning of the words they use (e.g., color words). Children with learning disabilities may use high-level vocabulary in speaking but be unable to express themselves in writing, or vice versa. In addition, limited life experiences due to impaired mobility may artificially lower scores (Whitmore & Maker, 1985). Since the population of gifted/disabled students is difficult to locate, they seldom are included in standardized test norming groups, adding to the problems of comparison.
In addition, gifted children with disabilities often use their intelligence to try to circumvent the disability. This may cause both exceptionalities to appear less extreme: the disability may appear less severe because the child is using the intellect to cope, while the efforts expended in that area may hinder other expressions of giftedness.
The following lists are intended to assist parents and teachers in recognizing intellectual giftedness in the presence of a disability.
Gifted Students with Visual Impairment
∙ Fast rate of learning
∙ Superior memory
∙ Superior verbal communication skills and vocabulary
o advanced problem-solving skills
o Creative production or thought that may progress more slowly than sighted students in some academic areas
o Ease in learning Braille
o Great persistence
o Motivation to know
o Sometimes slower rate of cognitive development than sighted students
o excellent ability to concentrate
(Whitmore & Maker, 1985)
Gifted Students with Physical Disabilities
∙ Development of compensatory skills
∙ Creativity in finding alternate ways of communicating and accomplishing tasks
∙ Impressive store of knowledge
∙ Advanced academic skills
∙ Superior memory
∙ Exceptional problem-solving skills
∙ Rapid grasp of ideas
∙ Ability to set and strive for long-term goals
∙ Greater maturity than age mates
∙ Good sense of humor
∙ Persistence, patience
∙ Motivation to achieve
∙ Curiosity, insight
∙ Self-criticism and perfectionism
∙ Cognitive development that may not be based on direct experience
∙ Possible difficulty with abstractions
∙ Possible limited achievement due to pace of work
(Cline, 1999; Whitmore & Maker, 1985; Willard-Holt, 1994)
Gifted Students with Hearing Impairments
∙ Development of speech-reading skills without instruction
∙ Early reading ability
∙ Excellent memory
∙ Ability to function in the regular school setting
∙ Rapid grasp of ideas
∙ High reasoning ability
∙ Superior performance in school
∙ Wide range of interests
∙ Nontraditional ways of getting information
∙ Use of problem-solving skills in everyday situations
∙ Possibly on grade level
∙ Delays in concept attainment
∙ Self starters
∙ Good sense of humor
∙ Enjoyment of manipulating environment
∙ Intuition
∙ Ingenuity in solving problems
∙ Symbolic language abilities (different symbol system)
(Cline, 1999; Whitmore & Maker, 1985)
Gifted Students with Learning Disabilities
∙ High abstract reasoning ability
∙ Good mathematical reasoning ability
∙ Keen visual memory, spatial skills
∙ Advanced vocabulary
∙ Sophisticated sense of humor
∙ Imaginative and creative
∙ Insightful
∙ Exceptional ability in geometry, science, arts, music
∙ Good problem-finding and -solving skills
∙ Difficulty with memorization, computation, phonics, and/or spelling
∙ Distractibility and/or disorganization
∙ Supersensitivity
∙ Perfectionism
∙ Grasp of metaphors, analogies, satire
∙ Comprehension of complex systems
∙ Unreasonable self expectations
∙ Often, failure to complete assignments
∙ Difficulties with sequential tasks
∙ Wide variety of interests
(Baum, Owen, & Dixon, 1991; Silverman, 1989)
Research indicates that in many cases, a child is diagnosed with ADHD when in fact the child is gifted and reacting to an inappropriate curriculum (Webb & Latimer, 1993). The key to distinguishing between the two is the pervasiveness of the "acting out" behaviors. If the acting out is specific to certain situations, the child's behavior is more likely related to giftedness; whereas, if the behavior is consistent across all situations, the child's behavior is more likely related to ADHD. It is also possible for a child to be BOTH gifted and ADHD. The following lists highlight the similarities between giftedness and ADHD.
Characteristics of Gifted Students Who Are Bored
∙ Poor attention and daydreaming when bored
∙ Low tolerance for persistence on tasks that seem irrelevant
∙ Begin many projects, see few to completion
∙ Development of judgment lags behind intellectual growth
∙ Intensity may lead to power struggles with authorities
∙ High activity level; may need less sleep
∙ Difficulty restraining desire to talk; may be disruptive
∙ Question rules, customs, and traditions
∙ Lose work, forget homework, are disorganized
∙ May appear careless
∙ Highly sensitive to criticism
∙ Do not exhibit problem behaviors in all situations
∙ More consistent levels of performance at a fairly consistent pace
(Cline, 1999; Webb & Latimer, 1993)
Characteristics of Students with ADHD
∙ Poorly sustained attention
∙ Diminished persistence on tasks not having immediate consequences
∙ Often shift from one uncompleted activity to another
∙ Impulsivity, poor delay of gratification
∙ Impaired adherence to commands to regulate or inhibit behavior in social contexts
∙ More active, restless than other children
∙ Often talk excessively
∙ Often interrupt or intrude on others (e.g., butt into games)
∙ Difficulty adhering to rules and regulations
∙ Often lose things necessary for tasks or activities at home or school
∙ May appear inattentive to details
∙ Highly sensitive to criticism
∙ Problem behaviors exist in all settings, but in some are more severe
∙ Variability in task performance and time used to accomplish tasks.
(Barkley, 1990; Cline, 1999; Webb & Latimer, 1993)
Questions to Ask in Differentiating between Giftedness and ADHD
∙ Could the behaviors be responses to inappropriate placement, insufficient challenge, or lack of intellectual peers?
∙ Is the child able to concentrate when interested in the activity?
∙ Have any curricular modifications been made in an attempt to change inappropriate behaviors?
∙ Has the child been interviewed? What are his/her feelings about the behaviors?
∙ Does the child feel out of control? Do the parents perceive the child as being out of control?
∙ Do the behaviors occur at certain times of the day, during certain activities, with certain teachers or in certain environments?
Gifted students with disabilities must be provided with appropriate challenges. The personal and societal costs of not developing their potential cannot be overstated.
Definitions of Gifted
School-Based Definitions
Schools may use a definition of gifted based on relative ability. Students are identified by how well they perform compared to other students in the school. Students in the top 5 or 10 (or some other number) percent are those singled out as needing a curriculum more challenging than the regular curriculum. Gifted in this definition is relative because a student who is identified as gifted in one school may not be identified as gifted in another school, leaving parents confused.
∙ Giftedness as Potential That Must be Nurtured
Definitions that consider giftedness as potential to be developed make a distinction between what a child is capable of achieving and what the child will achieve. The fact that a child has exceptional potential is part of what makes him or her gifted. The child’s environment determines whether potential leads to achievement, so people who define gifted this way stress the importance of providing an appropriate environment. Gagne’s Differentiated Model of Giftedness and Talent is an example.
∙ Giftedness as Asynchronous Development
Linda Silverman added a new dimension to definitions of gifted when she included the uneven development of gifted children, which she called asynchronous development. Definitions of gifted that include asynchronous development consider not only IQ and talent, but also emotional traits of gifted children, such as heightened sensitivity. The definition developed by the Columbus Group is an example of this type of definition.
∙ Columbus Group Definition
"Giftedness is 'asynchronous development' in which advanced cognitive abilities and heightened intensity combine to create inner experiences and awareness that are qualitatively different from the norm. This asynchrony increases with higher intellectual capacity. The uniqueness of the gifted renders them particularly vulnerable and requires modifications in parenting, teaching and counseling in order for them to develop optimally." (Columbus Group, 1991)
Definition: IQ is a measure of relative intelligence determined by a standardized test. The first intelligence test was created in 1905 by Alfred Binet and Théophile Simon to determine which French school children were too “slow” to benefit from regular instruction. Binet came up with the idea of mental age when he noticed that children are increasingly able to learn difficult concepts and perform difficult tasks as they get older. Most children reach the same level of complexity at about the same time, but some children are slower reaching those levels. A 6-year-old child who can do no more than a 3-year-old has a mental age of 3. Wilhelm Stern divided the mental age by the chronological age to get a “Mental Quotient.”
Mental Age/Chronological Age = Mental Quotient
Definition: Intelligence
There are probably as many definitions of intelligence as there are experts who study it. Simply put, however, intelligence is the ability to learn about, learn from, understand, and interact with one’s environment. This general ability consists of a number of specific abilities, which include these specific abilities:
∙ Adaptability to a new environment or to changes in the current environment
∙ Capacity for knowledge and the ability to acquire it
∙ Capacity for reason and abstract thought
∙ Ability to comprehend relationships
∙ Ability to evaluate and judge
∙ Capacity for original and productive thought
Additional specific abilities might be added to the list, but they would all be abilities allowing a person to learn about, learn from, understand, and interact with the environment. Environment in this definition doesn’t mean the environment of the earth, such as the desert, the mountains, etc., although it can mean that kind of environment. It has a wider meaning that includes a person’s immediate surroundings, including the people around him or her. Environment in this case can also be something as small as a family, the workplace, or a classroom.
Learning Disability Testing - Understanding Testing for a Learning Disability
What Does Learning Disabilities Testing Involve?
The learning disability testing process usually begins when a child has problems with academics or behavior in school. In most cases, a parent's first encounter with special education happens when a child is not progressing, and a learning disability is suspected. Typically, parents notice early signs of a learning disability and contact the school for assistance.
Initially, teachers may meet with the parent and decide to try interventions before referring a child for learning disability testing. If the parent and educators suspect a disability, they begin the testing process. Testing is necessary for children suspected of having a learning disability because:
∙ Learning disability testing is required by federal and state regulations to determine eligibility for special education;
∙ Learning disability testing provides important information about the child's suspected disability; and
∙ If the child qualifies, learning disability testing provides specific data for use in developing an Individual Education Program (IEP).
What does Learning Disability Testing Involve?
Learning disability testing is a complex processes of gathering information in all areas related to a student's suspected learning disability. Current federal regulations require that no more than sixty days should elapse from the time a student is referred for learning disability testing until the time the IEP is developed. To a parent, those sixty days of waiting for learning disability testing can seem like an eternity. What goes on during that time period? Depending on the area of disability and the unique questions surrounding each child, the learning disability testing may include:
∙ Review of educational records;
∙ Observations;
∙ Review of student work;
∙ Medical, vision, and hearing and audiological examination;
∙ Developmental and Social History;
∙ Fine and Gross Motor Evaluation;
∙ Speech and Language Assessment;
∙ Intellectual Ability or "IQ" tests;
∙ Assessment of Academic Skills;
∙ Social and Emotional Testing;
∙ Behavioral Testing; and
∙ Psychiatric Testing.
Who Conducts Testing for Learning Disabilities?
Testing may be provided by a variety of professionals as needed by the IEP team:
∙ Teachers;
∙ Educational Diagnosticians;
∙ Medical Professionals;
∙ Occupational and Physical Therapists;
Learning about Disability Testing Results
In many cases, the evaluators issue written testing reports of their findings that are shared by the team. Some school districts provide testing results in one integrated report rather than individual reports from each practitioner. When possible, it is helpful for evaluators to attend IEP team meetings to share their results with team members and ask questions. As always, parent input and participation is very important to the IEP team decision making process.
Using Learning Disability Testing Results to Make Educational Decisions
IEP team members review the information from the testing results and use the findings to:
∙ Determine if the student's scores and other test results meet eligibility criteria for a learning disability established by the state;
∙ If the child qualifies, determine the diagnosis;
∙ Develop an IEP;
∙ Determine what specially designed instruction is needed; and
∙ If the child doesn't qualify, determine what other program supports or instructional interventions are available for assistance.
Learning disabilities are neurological differences in processing information that severely limit a person’s ability to learn in a specific skill area. Everyone has differences in learning abilities, but people with learning disabilities have severe learning problems that persist throughout their lives. Learning disabled people may have difficulty in school or on the job. Learning disabilities may also impact independent living and social relationships.
Learning disabilities are noticed when children struggle with learning in their school years. Parents and preschool teachers often see early signs of learning disabilities. Children with learning disabilities may have difficulty learning basic skills in reading or understanding reading. Difficulty writing, math, or language may also signal learning disabilities. Some students with learning disabilities may easily learn basic skills but have difficulty applying skills in problem solving or higher level school work.
Living with learning disabilities can be a painful struggle for both the parents and the child with the learning disability. In many cases, parents are relieved to find an answer when children are diagnosed with learning disabilities. The diagnosis of a learning disability is reassuring because it leads to additional support in school through specially trained teachers and special education programs. Students with learning disabilities will also have individual education programs developed to address their specific learning disability needs.
Learning disabilities are supported with specially designed instruction based on each child's unique strengths, weaknesses, learning styles,and the impact of his learning disability.
What are Learning Disabilities Anyway?
Learning disabilities are believed to be caused by neurological differences in the way the brain processes information. People with learning disabilities usually have average or higher intelligence. Simply put, a person has a learning disability when his ability to learn an academic area is much lower than expected for his level of intelligence.Current learning disability regulations under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act indicate that Learning disabilities exist when a student's ability to learn is average or higher, but his skills in one or more academic areas are significantly weaker. This way of diagnosing a learning disability is typically referred to as the "aptitude achievement discrepancy" method.In the diagnosis of learning disabilities, the discrepancy is usually determined through assessment to determine the child's intelligence quotient, or IQ score, and his achievement test scores in specific academic areas of reading, math, and written language. Learning disabilities also include disorders of language processing, listening comprehension, and oral expression.A complete review of the student's educational history is conducted to rule out other possible explanations for the difference in skill development and IQ before a learning disability is diagnosed.
Early detection and intervention for learning disabilities are critical. If you suspect your child has a learning problem, find out how to recognize common signs of LDs.
Disabilities of Learning and Heredity - Are Learning Disabilities Biological?
True learning disabilities (LDs) are believed to be an organic type of disability resulting from neurological processing problems that cause difficulty with learning and applying skills in one or more academic areas. Evidence suggests that a child's chances of having a learning disability increase when parents or other relatives also have learning disabilities. This suggests that heredity may play a role in some cases. However, there are other possible causes of LDs that can be prevented in some cases.
Characteristics of Learning Disabled Students - What Kinds of Students Have Learning Disabilities?
Despite their difficulty in certain skill areas, learning disabled students are usually of average or higher intelligence. Some students with LDs are also gifted.
Types of Learning Disabilities - What are the Types of Learning Disabilities?
Learning disabilities can occur in reading, writing, math, and language
What are Learning Disabilities?
Learn about learning disabilities. If your child is one of the millions who have learning disabilities, learn what you need to know to understand these disorders and to help your child learn. Find facts about the various types specific learning disabilities, related learning disorders, and mental health issues that can affect your child's education and everyday life.
Learning Disabilities in Reading, Dyslexia
Types of Reading Disabilities - The IDEA defines two main types of learning disabilities in reading. Learning disabilities in basic reading skills involve the foundational skills required to understand the relationship between letters, sounds, and the words they represent. Reading comprehension disabilities involve complex thinking skills such as understanding words, phrases and larger meanings of passages. Learn more about learning disabilities in reading and other diagnostic terms such as Dyslexia.
Dysgraphia and Learning Disabilities in Writing
Learning Disabilities in Writing - Does your child struggle with writing? If you suspect a type of learning disability, find information you need to understand writing disorders. Learning disabilities in basic writing skills include neurologically-based difficulty with producing written words and letters. Expressive writing disabilities may involve comprehending and organizing written thoughts on paper. Find information you need to help your child with learning disabilities in writing and other writing disorders, such as Dysgraphia.
Learning Disabilities in Math, Dyscalculia
Learning Disabilities in Math - If your child struggles with math calculation or problem solving, you suspect a type of learning disability. Learn what you need to know about learning disabilities in basic math, applied math skills, and other disorders such as dyscalculia. Find information and resources you need to determine if further assessment is needed.
Learning Disabilities in Language, Communication
Learning Disabilities in Language - There are several types of learning disabilities in language. Students with language based learning disabilities may have difficulty with understanding or producing spoken language, or both. Receptive language disorder is a type of learning disability affecting the ability to understand spoken, and sometimes written, language. Learn more about the types of language disabilities and how to recognize them.
∙ Receptive Language Disability - LDs in Listening Comprehension
∙ Learning Disabilities in Expressive Language - Disorders of Communication
Behavior Disorders with Learning Disabilities
Children with learning disabilities sometimes have behavioral problems. In some cases, problems with behavior may involve medical conditions such as attention deficit disorders. In other cases, behaviors may result from frustration with learning or learned because of environmental factors at school, home, or both. Learn about the types of behavior problems that may be occur with learning disabilities.
MENTAL RETARDATION
a condition, usually present from birth, characterized by intellectual functioning that is below average: it ranges in degree from borderline (IQ of 71-84) to mild (IQ of 50-55 to approximately 70) to moderate (IQ of 35-40 to 50-55) to severe (IQ of 20-25 to 35-40) to profound (IQ of below 20-25): this technical classification has replaced the older terms moron, imbecile, and idiot.
Mental Retardation - Definition
Mental retardation refers to substantial limitations in present functioning. It is characterized by significantly sub-average intellectual functioning, existing concurrently with related limitations in two or more of the following applicable adaptive skill areas:
∙ communication
∙ home living
∙ community use
∙ health and safety
∙ leisure
∙ self-care
∙ social skills
∙ self-direction
∙ functional
∙ academics
∙ work
In practice the diagnosis of mental retardation requires a determination that a child has significantly sub-average intelligence, which is expressed as an IQ score that is more than two standard deviations below the mean. Depending upon the test, an IQ score below 70 (WISC-R) or 69 (Binet) is considered to be significant. Performance in all areas of functioning is also expected to be low, and achievement and general development should coincide with the low functioning. A measure of adaptive behavior is also required in order to prevent culturally "different" children from misdiagnosis, although tests of adaptive behavior have correlated highly with IQ tests, meaning they measure the same traits and are probably interchangeable. In reporting an IQ, examiners should not disregard the standard error of measurement. A pupil with a score of 70 could very well have a "true score" above or above 70. If a mistake is made, the pupil must suffer the consequences by having an inappropriate label attached and opportunities diminished because of lower expectations.
In many ways, retarded children present opposite characteristics of the gifted but also the same kinds of programming problems. The majority of children classified as retarded are able to live independently as adults, a small minority require supervised adult living, and only a very small number require care in a private or state facility. Thus, the majority of children identified as retarded can and will attend public schools and, given proper consideration and programming, will be able to succeed in school and in a vocation. However, just as in the case of the gifted, the teacher is concerned principally with the vast average group of students and finds it difficult to provide necessary services for the retarded who require individualized attention and assistance.
Children with mental retardation develop in the same way as people without mental retardation, but more slowly. By definition, persons with mental retardation have problems with thinking and learning such as attention, perception, or memory. Depending on the extent of the disability there will be different outcomes for academic, social, and vocational adjustment.
Over 200 causes of mental retardation have been identified, but many others are not known. The known categories fall into these general classifications:
Genetic - x-ray exposure, genes inherited from parents, Rh blood factor incompatibility, Down's Syndrome, error in metabolism, or recessive genetic traits.
Problem in Pregnancy (prenatal)- poor nutrition, measles, tumors, glandular disorders, infections, exposure to toxic agents and drugs, or radiation.
Birth Problems (perinatal) - premature birth, prolonged birth, reduction of oxygen to the infant's brain.
Post Birth (postnatal) - disease that affects the brain (chicken pox, measles, meningitis, whooping cough); fever, injuries to the brain, lack of certain chemicals in the blood, or glandular imbalance.
Environmental Factors - deprived environment and malnutrition.
Only 3% of the population have mental retardation, and only about 15% of this small group have greater than mild disabilities.
By comparison to peers, a mentally retarded person passes through developmental milestones more slowly and will be slower to learn and reveal slower development of physical skills. Due to other complications, there may also be concomitant conditions associated with the condition such as physical handicaps, speech impairments, visual impairments, hearing defects, epilepsy, and others.
Characteristics
The characteristics of mental retardation are somewhat circular, because students are identified and diagnosed on the basis of criteria that are later used to describe them.
Intellectual Skills. By definition mental retardation means that mental skills are subaverage, so this is the primary
characteristic.
Adaptive Skills. Due to the fact that adaptation to one's social and physical environment requires intellectual ability, persons with mental retardation are likely to demonstrate significant differences from others. If they do not, classification as mentally retarded is erroneous, despite the measure intelligence quotient.
Academic Achievement. Due to subaverage intellectual functioning, persons with mental retardation are likely to be slower in reaching levels of academic achievement equal to their peers. This stands to reason. However, many students are ultimately able to reach some level of literacy, it just takes much longer.
Motivation. Motivation is a problem for persons with any disability because it is learned. Constant comparison to others who perform in many areas with apparent ease can be frustrating and diminish motivation, diminish self-esteem, and sometimes create "learned helplessness" and belief in failure.
Speech and Language. Due to diminished intellectual functioning and associated neurological conditions, many children with mental retardation have delayed language and speech problems.
Physical Characteristics. As in the case of speech and language problems, mentally retarded persons have slower physical development (e.g., toilet training, walking) and are likely to have some forms of associated physical problems.
Difficulty Attending. Children with mental retardation do not necessarily have more difficulty attending than children of the same mental age, but they are often associated with age peers and the contrasts are more noticeable in terms of developmental delay.
Impairments in memory, particularly short-term memory. Research has shown that many persons with retardation have good long-term memory, but they have difficulty remembering in the short term, especially if the facts or complexity of the learning situation are not readily apparent.
Difficulty with the generalization of skills. The inability to generalize is related to the inability to think abstractly.
Limitations in adaptive skill areas. As a consequence of limited intellectual ability, decisions important for adjusting to new circumstances and problems becomes evident in many areas of adaptation to daily activities that require deliberation and decision making.
What is a Disability?
A disability is a condition or function judged to be significantly impaired relative to the usual standard of an individual or group. The term is used to refer to individual functioning, including physical impairment, sensory impairment, cognitive impairment, intellectual impairment mental illness, and various types of chronic disease.Disability is conceptualized as being a multidimensional experience for the person involved. There may be effects on organs or body parts and there may be effects on a person's participation in areas of life. Correspondingly, three dimensions of disability are recognized in ICF: body structure and function (and impairment thereof), activity (and activity restrictions) and participation (and participation restrictions). The classification also recognizes the role of physical and social environmental factors in affecting disability outcomes.
Types of Disabilities
Types of disabilities include various physical and mental impairments that can hamper or reduce a person's ability to carry out his day to day activities. These impairments can be termed as disability of the person to do his or her day to day activities. These impairments can be termed as disability of the person to do his day to day activities as previously. "Disability" can be broken down into a number of broad sub-categories, which include the following:
a) Mobility and Physical Impairments
This category of disability includes people with varying types of physical disabilities including:
Upper limb(s) disability.
Lower limb(s) disability
Manual dexterity.
Disability in co-ordination with different organs of the body.
Disability in mobility can be either an in-born or acquired with age problem. It could also be the effect of a disease. People who have a broken bone also fall into this category of disability.
b) Spinal Cord Disability:
Spinal cord injury (SCI) can sometimes lead to lifelong disabilities. This kind of injury mostly occurs due to severe accidents. The injury can be either complete or incomplete. In an incomplete injury, the messages conveyed by the spinal cord is not completely lost. Whereas a complete injury results in a total dis-functioning of the sensory organs. In some cases spinal cord disability can be a birth defect.
c) Head Injuries - Brain Disability
A disability in the brain occurs due to a brain injury. The magnitude of the brain injury can range from mild, moderate and severe. There are two types of brain injuries:
Acquired Brain Injury (ABI)
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
ABI is not a hereditary type defect but is the degeneration that occurs after birth.
The causes of such cases of injury are many and are mainly because of external forces applied to the body parts. TBI results in emotional dysfunctioning and behavioral disturbance.
d) Vision Disibility
There are hundreds of thousands of people that suffer from minor to various serious vision disability or impairments. These injuries can also result into some serious problems or diseases like blindness and ocular trauma, to name a few. Some of the common vision impairment includes scratched cornea, scratches on the sclera, diabetes related eye conditions, dry eyes and corneal graft.
e) Hearing Disability
Hearing disabilities includes people that are completely or partially deaf, (Deaf is the politically correct term for a person with hearing impairment). People who are partially deaf can often use hearing aids to assist their hearing. Deafness can be evident at birth or occur later in life from several biologic causes, for example Meningitis can damage the auditory nerve or the cochlea. Deaf people use sign language as a means of communication. Hundreds of sign languages are in use around the world. In linguistic terms, sign languages are as rich and complex as any oral language, despite the common misconception that they are not "real languages".
f) Cognitive or Learning Disabilites
Cognitive Disabilities are kind of impairment present in people who are suffering from dyslexia and various other learning difficulties and includes speech disorders.
f) Psychological Disorders
Affective Disorders: Disorders of mood or feeling states either short or long term. Mental Health Impairment is the term used to describe people who have experienced psychiatric problems or illness such as:
Personality Disorders - Defined as deeply inadequate patterns of behavior and thought of sufficient severity to cause significant impairment to day-to-day activities.
Schizophrenia: A mental disorder characterized by disturbances of thinking, mood, and behavior.
h) Invisible Disabilities
Invisible Disabilities are disabilities that are not immediately apparent to others. It is estimated that 10% of people in the U.S. have a medical condition considered a type of invisible disability.
The Evolution of a Movement
Historically, disabilities have often been cast in a negative light. An individual thus affected was seen as being a “patient” subject either to cure or to ongoing medical care. His condition is seen as disabling; the social reactions to it are justified, and the barriers unavoidable. This position is known as the medical model of disability.Over the past 20 years, a competing view known as the social model of disability has come to the fore. In this model, disability is seen more as a social construction than a medical reality. An individual may be impaired by a condition that requires daily living adaptations, but the bulk of his problem - his disability - can be found in the attitudinal and physical barriers erected by society.Both the medical and social models agree, to a point, that facilities and opportunities should be made as accessible as possible to individuals who require adaptations. Dismantling physical barriers, or setting up adaptations such as wheelchair ramps, is known as "fostering accessibility".
The Language and Terminology of Disability
The term disability has replaced the older designations spastic, handicapped, and crippled. While these two designations can be used interchangeably, proponents of the social model of disability have appropriated the latter term to describe those social and economic consequences of the former. An individual with a physical or intellectual disability, then, is said to be "handicapped" by the lowered expectations of society.
A person may also be "impaired" either by a correctable condition such as myopia, or by an uncorrectable one such as cerebral palsy. For those with mild conditions, related impairments disappear with the application of corrective devices. More serious impairments call for adaptive equipment.
ORTHOPEDIC AND NEUROLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS
What Does Orthopedic Impairment Mean?
According to IDEA, Orthopedic impairment is a severe disability that adversely affects a child’s educational performance. The term includes impairments caused by a congenital anomaly, disability caused by disease (such as poliomyelitis or bone tuberculosis) and from other impairments that can cause contracture.
∙ Orthopedic impairment involves the central nervous system and is a disability of the brain, spinal cord, or nervous system . These impairments often result in compound motor problems that can affect several body systems.
∙ Neuromotor impairment can be loss of control of a certain part of the body, lack of ability to move, use or feel. The two most common types of neuromotor impairments are cerebral palsy and spina bifida.
Although orthopedic and neurological impairments are two distinct and separate types of disabilities, they can cause comparable limitations in movement. Many of the same educational, therapeutic, and recreational activities that work for students with orthopedic disabilities will also be appropriate for neurological impairments
Types of Orthopedic Impairment:
∙ Bone Diseases
∙ Brachial Plexus/Erb's Palsy
∙ Cerebral Palsy
∙ Hydrocephalus
∙ Muscular Dystrophy
∙ Poliomyelitis
∙ Scoliosis
∙ Spina Bifida
∙ Spinal Cord Injury
∙ Spinal Muscular Atrophies
As with most disabilities, classroom accommodations for students with orthopedic impairments will vary depending on the individual needs of the student. Many students with orthopedic impairment do not have cognitive impairment, so their collaboration may include most or all general curriculum. In order to have access to the general course of study, students with orthopedic impairment may need:
1. A special seating arrangement to develop useful posture and movements
2. Focus on development of gross and fine motor skills
3. Use of communication and other assistive devices
4. Other things to consider are the individual’s medical condition and its affect on the student (such as getting tired quickly).
SPINA BIFIDA
Spina bifida is a birth defect that involves the incomplete development of the spinal cord or its coverings. The term spina bifida comes from Latin and literally means "split" or "open" spine.Spina bifida occurs at the end of the first month of pregnancy when the two sides of the embryo's spine fail to join together, leaving an open area. In some cases, the spinal cord or other membranes may push through this opening in the back. The condition usually is detected before a baby is born and treated right away.
Types of Spina Bifida
The causes of spina bifida are largely unknown. Some evidence suggests that genes may play a role, but in most cases there is no familial connection. A high fever during pregnancy may increase a woman's chances of having a baby with spina bifida. Women with epilepsy who have taken the drug valproic acid to control seizures may have an increased risk of having a baby with spina bifida.
The two forms of spina bifida are spina bifida occulta and spina bifida manifesta.
Spina bifida occulta is the mildest form of spina bifida (occulta means hidden). Most children with this type of defect never have any health problems, and the spinal cord is often unaffected.
Spina bifida manifesta includes two types of spina bifida:
1. Meningocele involves the meninges, the membranes responsible for covering and protecting the brain and spinal cord. If the meninges push through the hole in the vertebrae (the small, ring-like bones that make up the spinal column), the sac is called a meningocele.
2. Myelomeningocele is the most severe form of spina bifida. It occurs when the meninges push through the hole in the back, and the spinal cord also pushes though. Most babies who are born with this type of spina bifida also have hydrocephalus, an accumulation of fluid in and around the brain.
Because of the abnormal development of and damage to the spinal cord, a child with myelomeningocele typically has some paralysis. The degree of paralysis largely depends on where the opening occurs in the spine. The higher the opening is on the back, the more severe the paralysis tends to be.
Children with spina bifida often have problems with bowel and bladder control, and some may have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or other learning difficulties, such as hand-eye coordination problems.
NEUROLOGICAL IMPAIRMENT
Epilepsy. In epilepsy, regardless of etiology, degree of impairment will be determined according to type, frequency, duration, and sequelae of seizures. At least one detailed description of a typical seizure is required. Such description includes the presence or absence of aura, tongue bites, sphincter control, injuries associated with the attack, and postictal phenomena. The reporting physician should indicate the extent to which description of seizures reflects his own observations and the source of ancillary information. Testimony of persons other than the claimant is essential for description of type and frequency of seizures if professional observation is not available.
Speech and Language Terms and Abbreviations
Terms Commonly Used to Diagnose a Speech or Language Disorder:
Acquired Brain Injury (ABI): An accident or trauma that causes injury to the brain. Acquired Brain Injury can also be called a Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) and it may be caused by penetrating injuries, such as in a car accident, or a Closed Head Injury (CBI) when the brain is damaged but there is no outward sign of trauma. The nature of the speech and language disorder depends on the type and extent of the injury.
Aphasia: Childhood or developmental aphasia is a disorder characterized by difficulty learning language in the absence of mental deficiency, sensory and physical deficits, severe emotional disturbances, environmental factors, or brain damage. Currently, these children are more likely referred to as language impaired, language disordered, or language disabled.
Apraxia: Verbal apraxia is a disorder of articulation characterized by difficulty with sequencing and organizing motor or muscle movements specifically for the production of speech. It may also be described as the impaired ability to motor-plan. Muscle weakness is not associated with apraxia. This is part of the group of disorders often referred to as Motor Speech Disorders.
Articulation: The movement of mouth, lips, tongue, voice box, etc (called the 'articulators') to produce speech sounds. Poor or incorrect articulation may be due to problems with the position, timing, direction, pressure, speed, or integration of the movement of lips, tongue, or other articulators. This also refers to the clarity of sounds in speech.
Central Auditory Processing: Central auditory processing involves the analysis of sound which occurs in the brain (ie. beyond the inner ear). Children with central auditory processing disorders have normal hearing in the usual sense. However, difficulty with central auditory processing will affect the ability to process, or make sense of, the sounds they hear. In the educational setting, the term "central auditory processing disorder" is a general one used to describe children who have difficulty listening in the classroom environment.
Cleft Lip and/or Palate: A disorder of the musculo-skeletal system where bone and muscle tissues do not fuse during the pre-natal period, causing a cleft in the lip and/or palate (ie. arch of the mouth). This may interfere with feeding and speech development.
Developmental Delay or Disability: A term used generically to refer to children whose development is delayed compared with their age peers. In education, the term refers to a severe learning disorder characterized by limited intellectual development and limited potential for academic learning. In the education setting, children may be identified with a "developmental disability" using the Ministry of Education Categories and Definitions of Exceptionalities.
Discourse: Connected communication of thought sequences; continuous expression or exchange of ideas.
Dysarthria: Dysarthria is diagnosed when the child has problems with making speech sounds (one of the motor speech disorders) because of muscle paralysis, muscle weakness or poor co-ordination which results from a neourological impairment, such as cerebral palsy or acquired brain injury. The result may be distorted, substituted or omitted sounds.
Dysfluency: Dysfluency, also known as stuttering, is an interruption in the smooth, easy flow of speech. Examples include repetitions, prolongations, interjections, and silent pauses. Other movements may become associated with the speech disruptions and are referred to as 'secondary characteristics, such as facial grimacing, head movements, or hand movements.
Dysphagia: A disturbance in the normal act of swallowing.
Elective Mutism: Elective mutism refers to children who can use speech to communicate but do so only with selected people in certain environments. These children usually speak only to immediate family. Some elective mutes may speak to extended family or neighbourhood children and be primarily mute at school.
Hearing Impairment: A full or partial loss of the ability to detect sounds. The inability to hear sounds, or distinguish among different sounds, will result in problems with speech and language development. 'Deafness' is the traditional term used to describe loss of hearing, but 'hearing impairment' is the preferred term that encompasses the fact there are different degrees of hearing loss.
Language Impairment/Disorder: These terms are used interchangeably to refer to a disorder characterized by a problem in the understanding and/or use of oral or written language (listening, speaking, reading, writing). Within education, children may be identified "language impaired" using the Ministry of Education Categories and Definitions of Exceptionalities.
Learning Disability: A learning disorder that involves problems in the understanding and use of the symbols of communication (including listening, speaking, reading, writing, mathematics). There is typically a significant difference between academic achievement and intellectual ability. Within education, children may be identified with a "learning disability" using Ministry of Education Categories and Definitions of Exceptionalities.
Pervasive Developmental Disorder (PDD): PDD is a generic term referring to a group of disorders that are characterized by : impairments in social interaction, impairment in verbal and nonverbal communication, and a restrictive, stereotypic pattern of behaviours. There is considerable variability in symptoms among individuals with PDD and considerable variability in the severity of these symptoms. There are a variety of disorders that fall under this category (including Autism, Asperger's Syndrome, Rett's Syndrome, etc.).
Phonological Disorder: Child has difficulty with the development of speech sounds and the rules for the sound system.
Semantic-Pragmatic Disorder: Semantic-pragmatic disorder (ie. language meaning and language use difficulties) is sometimes used to describe those children who demonstrate language difficulties similar to autism/PDD () without the non-verbal social and behavioural characteristics typical of autism/PDD.
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): An assault on the brain that causes mild to severe injury. The two types of traumatic brain injury are penetrating injuries and closed head injuries (CBI). The nature of the speech and language disorder depends on the type and extent of the injury.
Voice Disorder: Voice disorders include abnormalities in the pitch (too high/too low), quality (hoarse/breathy, tight/harsh) , loudness (inadequate/too loud), or resonance (hyponasal, such as when you have a cold, or hypernasal, when there is too much sound coming through the nose) of the voice.
Frequently Used Speech And Language Terms:
Auditory-Verbal Therapy: The auditory-verbal approach uses technology and teaching strategies that enable deaf and hard of hearing children to learn to listen, understand spoken language, and communicate through speech.
Augmentative Communication: Augmentative communication refers to a wide variety of non-verbal techniques used to supplement or 'augment' a person's oral speech which allows them to use and develop their language. These may include natural gestures, sign language, photographs and other kinds of pictures, spelling out words on alphabet displays, as well as 'higher tech' devices such as voice output devices, etc.
Communication Board: This Augmentative Communication device is a picture or alphabet display available to the child when he needs or has the opportunity to use it. The visual representation may include photographs, Picture Communication Symbols (PCS), Bliss symbols, alphabet letters/words, etc.
Expressive Language: The ability to express oneself. This usually refers to language expression through speech, but it also includes gestures, sign language, use of a communication board, and other forms of expression.
Fluency: The smooth, uninterrupted, effortless flow of speech; speech that is not hindered by excessive dysfluencies.
Grammar: Systems, rules or underlying principles that describe the structure of language (eg. Word order in sentences, grammatical markers such as plurals, verb tenses, pronouns etc).
Language: Language involves listening, speaking, reading and writing. Language problems may affect the ability to use acceptable vocabulary and grammar, to organize ideas for expression, and to communicate in a socially appropriate manner.
Morphology: How sounds and words are put together to form meaning. A 'morpheme' is the smallest unit of language that has meaning. The addition of a morpheme, such as "s", can change the meaning of a word. For example, cat becomes cats a plural, but the addition of "s" to bike can also change it from a noun to a verb, bikes. Language is made up of rules about how sounds and words are put together to create meaning and children often have difficulty learning and using the rules.
Phonology: The sound system of language including speech sounds, speech patterns and rules that apply to those sounds.
Pragmatics: The rules that govern and describe how language is used in different contexts and environments. For example, the words and tone of voice will be more formal when talking with the principal and may be very casual and include slang when talking with other children. Social rules are very subtle. Some children have difficulty figuring these rules out and applying them appropriately. As a result, they may be identified as having inappropriate or poor behaviour.
Receptive Language: The ability to understand or comprehend language. It usually refers to the ability to understand verbal expression, but it also includes the ability to understand sign language, writing, braille and other forms of language.
Resonance: Vibration of one or more structures related to the source of a sound. In voice, resonance relates to the quality of the voice produced (eg. hyponasal, hypernasal).
Semantics: The study of the meaning of language, including meaning at the word, sentence, and conversational level.
Sign Language: American Sign Language (ASL) is a gestural language used primarily by the deaf community. It has its own structure, independent of English. There are other sign language systems in use as well.
Speech: Speech refers to the transmission of language orally. Speech impairment includes articulation and/or phonological disorder, dysfluency, apraxia, dysarthria, voice and resonance.
Syntax: The order of language, especially the way words are put together in phrases or sentences to produce meaning.
Terms Used to Describe Speech And Language Personnel:
Audiologist - A professional who has completed a qualifying degree and/or certification courses and is registered .An audiologist is able to complete tests to determine level of hearing, and to provide rehabilitation services to persons with hearing loss. An Audiologist may also be qualified to prescribe equipment and devices to enhance hearing.
Sign Language Interpreter - Individuals who have been trained to use sign language for a person with a hearing impairment. An interpreter may be assigned to an individual or group to translate information.
Speech Assistant or Hearing Assistant - These terms are used to describe support personnel who are working under the direction and supervision of either a Speech-Language Pathologist or Audiologist
Speech Teacher - Until recently Teachers could take extra courses which would qualify them to deliver speech remediation programs. Some school boards in Ontario continue to utilize Speech Teachers in the delivery of programs to children.
Speech Therapist - A common term used to describe a Speech-Language Pathologist.
Speech-Language Pathologist - An individual with a university degree, usually at the Masters level, who is registered with the College of Audiologists and Speech-Language Pathologists of Ontario, and is qualified to assess speech, language and voice disorders and prescribe and implement therapeutic measures.
Hearing Loss Degrees
Hearing loss was originally defined in medical terms before the development of modern audiology. Today professionals use the consistent, research-based terminology of audiology, as well as less-defined educational and cultural descriptions. The following numerical values are based on the average of the hearing loss at three frequencies 500 Hz, 1,000 Hz, and 2000 Hz, in the better ear without amplification. The numerical values for the seven categories vary from author to author:
Normal hearing (-10 dB to 15 dB)
Slight loss (16 dB to 25 dB)
Mild loss (26 dB to 30 dB)
Moderate loss (31 dB to 50 dB)
Moderate/Severe (51 dB to 70 dB)
Severe loss (71 dB to 90 dB)
Profound loss (91 dB or more)
Mild Hearing Loss - Hearing loss averaging not more than 40 dB.
Mixed Hearing Loss - A combination of conductive and sensorineural hearing loss.
Moderate Hearing Loss - Hearing loss form 40 to 70 dB.
Ossicles - 3 bones of the middle ear. Malleus (hammer), Incus (anvil) and Stapes (stirrup)
Otoacoustic Emissions (OAE) - Tiny sounds created in the inner ear in response to a stimulus.
Otoplasty - Surgical reconstruction or re-shaping of the pinna (outer ear).
Otosclerosis - A disease in which spongy bone grows around the stapes, limiting movement, and causing progressive, conductive hearing loss.
SYNDROME
A syndrome is a group of signs and symptoms that together are characteristic of a particular disease or disorder.
Signs are things that a physician detects during physical examination, such as something on the skin, the way the head is shaped, or abnormal swelling.
Symptoms are things the patient reports, such as pain, difficulty moving a part of the body, or weakness.
If one element of a syndrome is present, it alerts the physician to look for the others.
Many times "syndrome" is used for a group of characteristics that occur together, though the reason why they occur is not known. This is true for many rare syndromes. Sometimes the syndrome is named after the person who discovered it, such as Seckel syndrome (a type of dwarfism) or West syndrome (a seizure disorder).
Theory on Curriculum and Instruction
Curriculum and instruction go hand in hand when it comes to meeting standards. Without a strong curriculum, instruction becomes lost and weak. Curriculum guides instruction and without curriculum there is no instruction. My theory is based on research and classroom experience as a teacher. The foundation for building a curriculum comes from having a strong, detailed and well thought out standard. Standards that lack organization provide a weak foundation to build the curriculum. Since curriculum and instruction are so closely related, it takes constant communication with the curriculum committees and teachers. Once the standard is set, the curriculum is put into place as a means of meeting those standards. The instruction that is taught is the how the curriculum and the standards will be achieved and fulfilled. Curriculum and instruction share a very close relationship. One cannot work without the other and both the curriculum must be strong in order for students to succeed.
“Curriculum is the content of what is taught along with an overall process of how that content is to be taught, and instruction being the more detailed plans and the way those plans are implemented in order to teach the curriculum content, it becomes easy to understand that the two must be compatible in order to maximize student learning” (Yates 2000).
To effectively teach students, teachers and staff must keep in mind that all students including special needs students learn in different ways. When creating a curriculum based on the standards, we must keep in mind how we will reach students with learning disabilities to ensure that they too strive to meet standards.
Curriculum and instruction take constant communication within the educational system for the benefit of the student. Curriculums are created from standards which are constantly changing and demanding more of students every year. As a result, the curriculum must also change and so should the instruction the helps to meet those standards. Students with learning disabilities and those without must get instruction that helps them retain the information being taught. The curriculum must take into account the different types of learners in the schools system and cater the curriculum to them. The instruction that is given is a more specific roadmap that will reach all learners. All in all both the curriculum and instruction are an essential part of education and meeting standards. Without either one, there is no way to effectively meet set standards.
ACCOMMODATIONS - - CHANGES IN THE WAY INSTRUCTION IS MEDIATED
Accommodation means changing the way in which instruction is delivered or changing the way in which a student is expected to respond to instruction. Accommodations should be recorded in the Specially Designed Instruction part of the student's IEP.
Accommodation IS NOT SYNONYMOUS with Modification. A child with a 504 plan is allowed accommodations, but is not permitted modifications. If a child requires modifications, he or she should be re-evaluated for special education services. In an adaptation one does not modify the content, only the means of delivering the content, or means of demonstrating mastery.
CRITERION REFERENCED TESTS
Criterion referenced tests are designed to find out whether a child has a set of skills, rather than how a child compares to other children of the same age (normed tests.) The test designers analyze the component parts of specific academic skills, say number understanding, and then write test items that will measure whether the child has all the component parts of the skill.
A test of reading skills would seek to discover whether a child can identify the specific sounds consonants make before it would evaluate whether a student can answer comprehension questions. The questions in a criterion referenced test would seek to find if the student has all those skills, not whether the student does as well as other third grade children.
Examples:
The Key Math Tests are criterion referenced achievement tests that provide both diagnostic information and achievement scores in math.Other criterion referenced tests include the Peabody Individual Achievement Test (PIAT,) and the Woodcock Johnson Test of Individual
Mainstreaming
Definition: Mainstreaming is an ideal situation and IDEA's preference for the placement of exceptional students. Placement of exceptional students is to be in the least restrictive environment as possible, which means, regular classroom setting. Although mainstreaming and inclusion aren't mentioned in the law, it is the preferred practice.
Mainstreaming has many advantages:
∙ Students are more likely to attend the school they would normally attend.
∙ The educational setting is more authentic.
∙ Regular and special education support provides a more individualized approach.
∙ Greater social opportunities
∙ Curricula is more relevant to the grade
∙ Greater sense of belonging
∙ The IEP is still in place in the regular classroom using the inclusional approach.
Inclusion - - What is Inclusion?
Federal Law Requires Students with Disabilities Learn with Typical Peers
Inclusion is the educational practice of educating children with disabilities in classrooms with children without disabilities.
Prior to the PL 94-142, the Education of All Handicapped Children Act, promised all children a public education for the first time. Prior to the law, enacted in 1975, only large districts provided any programming for special education children, and often the SPED kids were relegated to a room down near the boiler room, out of the way and out of sight.The Education of All Handicapped Children Act established two important legal concepts based upon the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment, FAPE, or Free and Appropriate Public Education, and LRE or Least Restrictive Environment. FAPE insured that the district was providing a free education that was appropriate for the child's need. Public insured that it was provided in a public school. LRE insured that the least restrictive placement was always sought. The first "default position" was meant to be in the child's neighborhood school in a classroom with typically developing "general education" students.There has been a broad range of practices from state to state and district to district. Because of lawsuits and due process actions, there is increasing pressure on states to put special education students in general education classrooms for part or all of their day.
Two Models
There are generally two models for inclusion: push in or full inclusion.
"Push In" has the special education teacher enter the classroom to provide instruction and support to children. The push in teacher will bring materials into the classroom. The teacher may work with the child on math during the math period, or perhaps reading during the literacy block. The push in teacher also often provides instructional support to the general education teacher, perhaps helping with differentiation of instruction.
"Full Inclusion" places a special education teacher as a full partner in a classroom with a general education teacher. The general education teacher is the teacher of record, and is responsible for the child, even though the child may have an IEP. There are strategies to help children with IEPs succeed, but there are also many challenges. No doubt not all teachers are well suited to partner in full inclusion, but skills for collaboration can be learned.
Differentiation is an incredibly important tool to help children with disabilities succeed in an inclusive classroom. Differentiation involves providing a range of activities and using a variety of strategies for children with different abilities, from learning disabled to gifted, to successfully learn in the same classroom.A child receiving special education services may participate fully in the same program as the general education children with supports from the special education teacher, or may participate in a limited way, as they are able. In some rare occasions, a child may work exclusively on goals in their IEP in a general education classroom alongside typically developing peers. For inclusion to truly succeed, special educators and general educators need to work closely together and compromise. It definitely requires that teachers have training and support to overcome the challenges they must meet together.
How To Integrate the Special Needs Student into Physical Education
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Public Law 108-466 (2004), states that physical education is a required service for children and youth between the ages of 3-21 who qualify for special education services because of a specific disability or developmental delay.The term special education means specially designed instruction, at no cost to the parents, to meet the unique needs of a child with a disability, including: instruction conducted in the classroom and instruction in physical education. The specially designed program will be outlined in the child's Individual Education Program/Plan (IEP). Therefore, physical education services, specially designed if necessary, must be made available to every child with a disability receiving FAPE.Physical Education for a special needs child will develop: Physical and motor fitness; Fundamental motor skills and patterns; and skills in aquatics, dance, and individual and group games and sports (including intramural and lifetime sports).[p The implication of IDEA's laws is basically to integrate all children within instructional and extra class programs and to individualize the instructional strategies and activity areas to support the special needs children. Some activites will have more restrictions than others and some will be less vigorous than others depending on the needs. The teacher in conjunction with other supporting staff will decide if the physical education program requires mild, moderate or limited participation. Remember that you will be adapting, modifying, and changing the activity and or equipment to meet the needs of the special needs students. This may mean, larger balls, bats, partner assistance, using different body parts, providing more rest time. The goal is to ensure the child is progressing and having some form of success.
Think in terms of action, time, assistance, equipment, boundaries, distance etc.
What is Augmentative Communication?(AC or ACC)
Augmentative, sometimes referred to as alternative communication (AAC) is a method of communication used by individuals with severe speech and language disabilities, those who have Cerebral Palsy, Autism, ALS, suffered from a stroke, etc. AAC is for those individuals who are unable to use verbal speech yet are cognitively able or when speech is extremely difficult to understand. These individuals will use gestures, communications boards, pictures, symbols, drawings or a combination of all of these. An individual would point to a single meaning picture - for instance if the individual was hungry, the picture may look like somebody eating. If the individual is also physically impaired, a head pointer may be worn to indicate the picture which would relay the feeling. The methods of AAC will vary and be personalized to meet the needs of the individual. Many forms of AAC with have an assistive technology component which will come in both high tech or low tech strategies. You don't need special skills for understanding an individual who is using ACC as the processes are self-explanatory.
Assessment - Assessment in Special Education Programs
Definition: An assessment in special education programs refers to the procedures and tests used to:
∙ diagnose specific learning disabilities and other types of disabilities;
∙ evaluate a student's current achievement levels;
∙ provide specific information about a student's academic strengths and weaknesses;
∙ describe the student's current intellectual functioning; and/or
∙ determine the student's learning style.
Contents of an Individual Education Plan (IEP)
ALL Exceptional Students Will Require an IEP
Individual Education Program (IEP) Program. Required Contents for an IEP. The IEP is a long range (yearly) planning document that is used in conjunction with the classroom teacher's daily and long range plans. The actual programming details will be contained in the teacher's daily and short range plans. Each student has unique needs that must be recognized and planned for in the academic program so that each student will be able to function as effectively as possible in the school environment, this is where the IEP comes into play. Placement of students may vary depending upon their needs and exceptionalities.
A student may be placed in:
∙ a regular classroom and receive program modifications
∙ a regular classroom and receive program modifications and also receive additional support from the special education teacher
∙ a regular classroom for a part of the day and a special education classroom for the remainder of the day
∙ a special education classroom with a variety of direct and indirect support from special education teachers and consultative support staff
∙ a treatment program or residential program with complete and ongoing support from a variety of staff.
Regardless of the placement of the student, an IEP will be in place. The contents of the IEP will vary from state to state and country to country, however, most will require the following:
1. The date the plan will be implemented along with the date that the placement of the student became effective.
2. A signature from the parent and depending upon the age of the student, it too may be required.
3. The exceptionality of the student or the multiple exceptionalities of the student.
4. Health issues will also be noted if they are applicable.
5. Personalized equipment that is required for the student to function must be stated and any equipment that may be on loan to the student must also be included on the IEP.
6. Any equipment that is used on a regular basis, such as a walker or a feeding chair.
7. Personnel that may be involved during the time that the IEP is in effect must also be listed. For instance, the vision resource specialist or the physio therapist etc.
8. Curricular modifications and or curricular accommodations should be contained in the IEP.
9. The amount of support that the student will receive must be listed. For instance, if the student will be in the regular class for physical education, science, social studies, art and music - yet for language and math they will receive support in the special education classroom for 30% of their day. Or, it may simply state that the special education will provide language support for 20 minutes a day in the morning.
10. The IEP should list the student's strengths and interests also. This will help to provide motivation when programming for the student and is something that anyone working with the student should know about.
11. Standardized assessment results and or scores should all be identified in the IEP.
12. Academic functioning along with the date also needs to be listed. For instance, if the student is in the 5th grade but is functioning academically at the second grade, this too needs to be noted. If there are supporting tests used to determine grade functioning, those scores should also be included along with the date the tests were conducted.
13. All subject areas requiring modifications or additional support should be listed.
14. Grade levels should also be included. If the student is working at grade level in everything except math - this needs to be noted.
15. Goals, Expectations and Performance Standards should be clearly identified with very specific details.
16. Strategies for how the student will achieve the goals or expectations must also be very clearly stated.
17. Evaluation comments should be added throughout the year as the IEP is a ' working ' document. It should be noted when something isn't working in the IEP and suggestions for improvement can then be added.
18. Parents and students (if applicable) should have a copy of the IEP and the IEP is stored in a safe place at the school - usually in the office.
Special Education Terminology
Terminology
Accommodations, Strategies, and Modifications are all common terms used in Special Education today.
Accommodations refer to the actual teaching supports and services that the student may require to successfully demonstrate learning. Accommodations should not change expectations to the curriculum grade levels.
Examples
∙ taped books
∙ math charts
∙ additional time
∙ oral test
∙ oral reports
∙ preferred seating
∙ study carrel
∙ amplified system
∙ braille writer
∙ adapted keyboard
∙ specialized software
Modifications refer to changes made to curriculum expectations in order to meet the needs of the student. Modifications are made when the expectations are beyond the students level of ability. Modifications may be minimal or very complex depending on the student performance. Modifications must be clearly acknowledged in the IEP.
Examples
∙ second language exemptions
∙ withdrawal for specific skills
∙ include student in same activity but individualize the expectations and materials
∙ student is involved in same theme/unit but provide different task and expectations
Strategies refer to skills or techniques used to assist in learning. Strategies are individualized to suit the student learning style and developmental level.
Examples
∙ highlighting
∙ rehearsal
∙ color coding
∙ memory joggers
∙ visual cues
∙ number lines
∙ alphabet strips
∙ keyring sight words
∙ flip chart
∙ organization/transition cards
∙ jello powder, play doe, seed spelling
∙ window paint
∙ bingo dapper
∙ stencils
∙ ink stamps
Remember, when developing and implementing accommodations, strategies and modifications, what works for one student may not work for another. Keep it individualized for optimum success!
Practical Strategies For The Classroom
Strategies For Special Education
There are many practical strategies that are effective in the classroom. It is up to the classroom and special education teacher to ensure that appropriate strategies are being used in the classroom to assist individual learning styles and provide success to all students with special needs. It is recommended that a multi-modal approach be used, visual, auditory, kinesthetic and tactile for optimum success.
Classroom Environment
∙ Provide the use of a study carrel when necessary.
∙ Seat student in area free from distractions.
∙ Eliminate all unnecessary materials from student desk to reduce distractions.
∙ Use a checklist to help student get organized.
∙ Keep an extra supply of pencils, pens, books and paper in the classroom.
∙ You may have to allow the student frequent breaks.
∙ Have an agreed upon cue for student to leave the classroom.
∙ Reduce visual distractions in the classroom.
Time Management and Transitions
∙ Space short work periods with breaks.
∙ Provide additional time to complete assignment.
∙ Allow extra time for homework completion.
∙ Inform student with several reminders, several minutes apart, before changing from one activity to the next.
∙ Reduce amount of work from usual assignment.
∙ Provide a specific place for turning in assignments.
Presentation of Materials
∙ Modify expectations based on students needs.
∙ Break assignments into segments of shorter tasks.
∙ Give alternative assignments rather than long written assignments.
∙ Provide a model of end product.
∙ Provide written and verbal direction with visuals if possible.
∙ Break long assignments into small sequential steps, monitoring each step.
∙ Highlight to alert student attention to key points within the written direction of the assignment..
∙ Check that all homework assignments are written correctly in some kind of an agenda/homework book. Sign it and have parents sign it as well.
∙ Number and sequence steps in a task.
∙ Provide outlines, study guides, copies of overhead notes.
∙ Explain learning expectations to the student before beginning a lesson.
∙ Make sure you have the students attention before beginning a lesson.
∙ Allow for student to use tape recorders, computers, calculators and dictation to obtain and retain assignment success.
∙ Allow oral administration of test.
∙ Limit the number of concepts presented at one time.
∙ Provide incentives for beginning and completing material.
Assessment, Grading and Testing
∙ Provide a quiet setting for test taking, allow tests to be scribed if necessary and allowing for oral responses.
∙ Exempt student from district wide testing if possible.
∙ Divide test into small sections.
∙ Grade spelling separately from content.
∙ Allow as much time as needed to complete.
∙ Avoid time test.
∙ Change percentage of work required for passing grade.
∙ Permit retaking the test.
∙ Provide monitored breaks from test
Behavior
∙ Avoid confrontations and power struggles.
∙ Provide an appropriate peer role model.
∙ Modify rules that may discriminate against student with neurological disorder.
∙ Develop a system or code that will let the student know when behavior is not appropriate.
∙ Ignore attention seeking behaviors that are not disruptive to the classroom.
∙ Arrange a designated safe place that student can go to.
∙ Develop a code of conduct for the classroom and visually display it in an appropriate place where all students can see it, review it frequently.
∙ Develop a behavior intervention plan that is realistic and easily applied.
∙ Provide immediate reinforcers and feedback.
Delivering an academic program to a room full of unique students is certainly a challenge. Implementing some of the listed strategies will provide a comfortable learning place for all students regardless of their academic abilities.
HOW DOES TEACHER COLLABORATION RELATE TO SPECIAL EDUCATION SERVICE DELIVERY
Teacher collaboration as it relates to special education services should not be considered in isolation from other aspects of a collaborative school. With educational improvement for all students as the overriding goal of collaborative schools (Smith & Scott, 1990), teacher collaboration regarding students with disabilities should be just another aspect of a school's collaborative ethic and an integral part of the school culture.
Applications of Collaborative Principles Collaboration cannot exist by itself. It can only occur when it is associated with some program or activity that is based on the shared goals of the individuals involved. An examination of applications in which teachers work collaboratively is appropriate. Depending upon their shared programmatic goals, educators can work together in many diverse ways to deliver services to students. Laycock, Gable, and Korinek (1991 ) have described several alternative formats or configurations that facilitate collaborative efforts to deliver educational services. The following sections consider applications of collaboration that may be used for improving the delivery of educational services to all students, including those with disabilities.
Co-Teaching.
Co-teaching is becoming a viable approach for instruction in many school situations. For example, in some high schools history and English teachers are co-teaching classes that combine their subject matter into a course called American Studies. Similarly, in middle schools, teams of teachers are meeting regularly to discuss instructional issues and to monitor student progress. Many teachers, regardless of level, contact colleagues to engage in shared classroom activities either formally or informally.
This service delivery approach is also receiving increasing attention as a means of integrating students with disabilities into general education classes. In co-teaching designed for this purpose, two teachers--one a general education teacher and the other a special education teacher--work primarily in a single classroom to deliver instruction to a heterogeneous group of students including students with disabilities.
Many different types of co-teaching may occur (Adams, Cessna, Stein, & Friend, 1992; Bauwens, Hourcade, & Friend, 1989; Friend & Cook, 1992). The following are several common approaches:
One teach, one observe or assist. In this type of co-teaching, both teachers are present, but one--often the general education teacher--takes a clear lead in the classroom while the other gathers observational data on students or "drifts" around the room assisting students during instruction. This approach is simple; it requires little planning on the part of the teachers, and it provides the additional assistance that can make a heterogeneous class successful. However, it also has serious liabilities. If the same teacher consistently observes or assists, that teacher may feel like a glorified aide and the students may have trouble responding to him or her as a real teacher. If this approach is followed, the teachers should alternate roles regularly.
Station teaching.
In this approach, the teachers divide the content to be delivered and each takes responsibility for part of it. In a classroom where station teaching is used, some of the students may be completing independent work assignments or participating in peer tutoring. Although this approach requires that the teachers share responsibility for planning to sufficiently to divide the instructional content, each has separate responsibility for delivering instruction. Students benefit from the lower teacher-pupil ratio, and students with disabilities may be integrated into a group instead of being singled out. Furthermore, because with this approach each teacher instructs each part of the class, the equal status of both students and teachers is maximized. One drawback to station teaching is that the noise and activity level may be unacceptable to some teachers.
Parallel teaching.
The primary purpose of this type of co-teaching is to lower the student-teacher ratio. In parallel teaching, the teachers plan the instruction jointly, but each delivers it to half of the class group. This approach requires that the teachers coordinate their efforts so that the students receive essentially the same instruction. This type of co-teaching is often appropriate for drill and practice activities, projects needing close teacher supervision, and test review. As with station teaching approaches, noise and activity levels may need to be monitored.
Alternative teaching.
Team teaching. In team teaching, both teachers share the instruction of students. The teachers may take turns leading a discussion, one may speak while the other demonstrates a concept, one may speak while the other models note taking on the chalkboard, and so on. Teachers may role play, simulate conflict, and model appropriate question asking. This approach requires the highest level of mutual trust and the most commitment. It is an approach that some co-teachers may never enjoy. On the other hand, many veteran co-teachers report that this is the type c of co- teaching they find most rewarding.
Some of these approaches require close collaboration on (e.g., team teaching) while others do not (e.g., one teaching while the other observes or assists). For all the approaches, Redditt (1991) has offered the following important points to keep in mind:
All members of the school community (i.e., teachers, administrators, parents) must understand that a co-taught class is not a duplication of effort or a waste of one teacher; the two teachers are accomplishing together what neither could do alone.
Co-teaching is not for everyone. Some teachers simply will be too uncomfortable with a colleague present in the teaching situation to perform effectively.
Co-teachers must be both flexible and committed to the co-teaching process. For co-teaching to be successful, each teacher gives up a little and gains a great deal.
Scheduling is one of the greatest challenges in co-teaching. Teachers not only need a shared time to teach (whether on a daily, weekly, or occasional basis), they also need time to plan instruction, especially for the models in which more coordination between the teachers is needed.
Teams.
Another school application of collaboration is teaming. Although much of the information presented in the following paragraphs could apply to any type of team, the emphasis will be on two types in particular: prereferral teams and multidisciplinary teams.
Prereferral Teams.
Prereferral team is a term used to refer to all the team approaches that address students' academic and behavior problems prior to any consideration for special education eligibility. Some teams consist of only teachers, while some include others who can assist in assessing student difficulties and supporting teachers. On all such teams, the procedures used are generally consistent with those of the prereferral intervention system proposed by Graden, Casey, and Bonstrom (1985):
Stage 1: Request for consultation. In this stage the teacher requests assistance for a student, sometimes through an informal contact with an individual who functions as a consultant and sometimes through presentation of student concerns at a team meeting.
Stage 2: Consultation. During this stage, strategies to address the problems raised by the student's teacher are suggested and systematically implemented. Generally, the teacher has the primary responsibility for most of the strategies.
Stage 3: Observation. Feedback on the strategies being implemented is sought to determine their effectiveness; alternative strategies may also be suggested. On some teams Stages 2 and 3 are combined.
Stage 4: Conference. At this stage, the team meets to consider the information gathered. The team may decide to continue or adapt interventions, determine that a full assessment is needed, or determine that no additional intervention is warranted.
If the team recommends referral for full assessment to determine eligibility for special education, the team process is extended and involves a multidisciplinary team.
THE NEWBORN SCREENING
The test is aptly called Newborn Screening is a very simple test that should be given to newborn babies within 24 hours from birth. If the test is given too late the baby can either die or eventually be severely retarded. It is a blood test wherein the blood sample is taken from the heel of the baby and placed in a special paper . The test is bale to check five metabolic disorder such as , Congenital Hypothyroidism, Congenital Adrenal Hyperplaxia, Galactosemia, Phynelketonuria and Glucose Six Phosphate Dehydrogenase deficiency.
Intelligence tests
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Alfred Binet (1857-1911) was a French psychologist who was interested in thestudy of thinking and mental processes. As the director of physiological psychology at the Sorbonne, he was asked by the French Ministry of Public Instruction to develop a method of identifying children who were too so far below average in intelligence that they could not be educated in ordinary public schools.The Stanford-Binet scale tests intelligence across four areas: verbal reasoning, quantitative reasoning, abstract/visual reasoning, and short-term memory.The SB-FE differs from earlier versions of the test because it gives subtestscores in the four areas as well as a single composite IQ score. The areas are covered by 15 subtests, including vocabulary, comprehension, verbal absurdities, pattern analysis, matrices, paper folding and cutting, copying, quantitative, number series, equation building, memory for sentences, memory for digits, memory for objects, and bead memory.All test subjects take an initial vocabulary test, which along with the subject's age, determines the number and level of subtests to be administered. Total testing time is 45-90 minutes, depending on the subject's age and the number of subtests given. Raw scores are based on the number of items answered, and are converted into a standard age score corresponding to age group.The mean, or average, score on the Stanford-Binet test is 100. This means 50percent of people score above 100 and 50 percent score below 100. The actualnumber is calculated by taking the person's mental age as determined by the test results and dividing it by their chronological age then multiplying by 100. For example, if a 14 year old does as well as the average 16 year old, theIQ score is 16/14 x 100 = 114. Scores generally range from about 40 (very low) to 160 (very high). An IQ score of 130 is higher than about 98 percent ofall people tested.
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales
The Wechsler Intelligence Scales consist of several different standardized tests used to evaluate reasoning and intellectual abilities in pre-school children through adults.David Wechsler (1896-1981) was an American psychologist who began his career by administering and interpreting mental tests that had been designed for the United States Army to assign recruits to army jobs that best suited their abilities.
The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scales are used to determine vocational ability, to assess adult intellectual ability in the classroom, and to determine organic deficits. Both adult and children's Wechsler scales, as well as the Stanford-Binet test, are often included in neuropsychological testing to assess the brain function of individuals with neurological impairments.The WAIS-R was revised in 1981 because of a need for a more contemporary norm group than the original test sample. The test is designed for adults, age 16-74.
Other Types of Intelligence Testing
Other tests are designed to be given in groups. These include the Cognitive Abilities Test (CAT) and the School and College Abilities Tests (SCAT). These tests can be given by untrained test administrators and are computer scored.Intelligence testing is just one snapshot of a person's abilities. The information from the test does not predict one's success in life. It should be taken as just one factor in a complete neurological or psychiatric evaluation.
Types of Seizures
Seizure Basics
Most seizures are caused by abnormal electrical discharges in the brain or by fainting (decrease in blood flow to the brain). Symptoms may vary depending on the part of the brain involved, but often include unusual sensations, uncontrollable muscle spasms, and loss of consciousness.
There have been many attempts to categorize seizures, based on both the causes of seizures as well as the different seizure subtypes. A well-recognized classification system is the International Classification of Epileptic Seizure.This divides seizure types by the location in the brain that they originate from.
The two main categories of seizures include partial seizures and generalized seizures.
Partial seizures are those that begin in a focal or discreet area of the brain. This type can be further subdivided into:
∙ Simple partial: No change in consciousness occurs. Patients may experience weakness, numbness, and unusual smells or tastes. Twitching of the muscles or limbs, turning the head to the side, paralysis, visual changes, or vertigo may occur. When motor symptoms spread slowly from one part of the body to another, this "epileptic march" has been termed jacksonian epilepsy (first described by Hughlings Jackson).
∙ Complex partial seizures (temporal lobe): Consciousness is altered during the event. Patients may have some symptoms similar to those in simple partial seizures but have some change in their ability to interact with the environment. Patients may exhibit automatisms (automatic repetitive behavior) such as walking in a circle, sitting and standing, or smacking their lips together. Often accompanying these symptoms are the presence of unusual thoughts, such as the feeling of deja vu (having been someplace before), uncontrollable laughing, fear, visual hallucinations, and experiencing unusual unpleasant odors. These interesting symptoms are thought to be caused by abnormal discharges in the temporal lobe.
Generalized seizures involve larger areas of the brain, often both hemispheres (sides), from the onset. They are further divided into many subtypes. The more common include:
∙ Tonic-clonic (grand mal): This subtype is what most people associate with seizures. Specific movements of the arms and legs and/or the face may occur with loss of consciousness. A yell or cry often precedes the loss of consciousness. Prior to this, patients may have an aura (an unusual feeling that often warns the patient that they are about to have a seizure). The person will abruptly fall and begin to have jerking movements of their body and head. Drooling, biting of the tongue, and incontinence of urine may occur. When the jerking movements stop, the patient may remain unconscious for a period of time. The seizure usually lasts 5 to 20 minutes. They often awaken confused and may sleep for a period of time. The patients may experience prolonged weakness after the event; this is termed Todds paralysis.
∙ Absence (petit mal): Loss of consciousness only occurs, without associated motor symptoms. Usually there is no aura, or warning. The loss of consciousness is brief; the patient may appear to be involved with the environment and briefly stop what they are doing, stare for 5 to 10 seconds, and then continue their activity. No memory of the event exits. Subtle motor movements may accompany the alteration in consciousness.
∙ Myoclonic: Myoclonic seizures are characterized by a brief jerking movement that arises from the central nervous system, usually involving both sides of the body. The movement may be very subtle or very dramatic. There are many different syndromes associated with myoclonic seizures, including juvenile myoclonic epilepsy, West syndrome and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome. Most cases of myoclonic epilepsy occur during the first 5 years of life.
West Syndrome
West syndrome involves a group of symptoms including infantile spasms, retardation of psychomotor development, and a particular abnormality on the electroencephalogram (EEG) known as hypsarrhythmia. Infantile spasms are characterized by a particular posturing of the infant's body, in which the child assumes a jack-knife, or folded, position. These spasms may occur frequently in the course of the day or may be continuous. Neurological problems are ultimately found in most of these children. The hypsarrhythmia pattern seen on the EEG is a grossly disorganized pattern of electrical brain activity. It is often difficult to control the seizures in this syndrome because they usually respond poorly to most anticonvulsant medications.
Lennox-Gastaut Syndrome
Lennox-Gastaut syndrome is characterized by the early onset of a common seizure type called minor motor seizures. These seizures include the aforementioned myoclonic seizures, atypical absence seizures, and atonic seizures. Atypical absence seizures may involve staring and brief episodes of unconsciousness. They may occur in cycles and are associated with EEG findings different from those seen in typical absence seizures. Atonic seizures may be associated with sudden loss of muscle tone.
Status epilepticus is prolonged, repetitive seizure activity that lasts more than 20 to 30 minutes, during time which the patient is unconscious. Status epilepticus is a medical emergency with a significantly poor outcome; it can result in death if not treated aggressively. Its causes include improper use of certain medications, stroke, infection, trauma, cardiac arrest, drug overdose, and brain tumor.
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